Are you stalled in your training progress, in a state of "stagnation" or, even worse, overworked or overtrained? The most common advice you'll get from a trainer or a more experienced training buddy is: "Change your training program." Moreover, the argument, most likely, will be quite vague: "muscles need variety", "the body needs a shake-up", etc. What kind of variety, what exactly - in the weight of weights, time under load, the number of approaches, in exercises? How much, why, why? Accurate, physiologically sound, the answer you will hear infrequently.
Often the change in the training program is that the athlete, instead of "bending the arms with dumbbells for biceps while sitting," begins to do "concentrated flexion", instead of "French bench press" - " french press standing", etc. Has the athlete changed his program? No! If the main characteristics of the training load of these two programs have not changed, then, in fact, this is one and the same program.
What are these characteristics? Let's consider them in more detail.
Training loads are determined by the following indicators:
a) the intensity of the training;
b) training volume;
c) the nature of the exercises.
Please note that the definition of characteristics such as volume and intensity of the load will differ from the definitions adopted in certain sports.
So, in order.
Load intensity
Intensity- this is an integral characteristic that reflects both the magnitude of the external load (the so-called "external" intensity), and the degree of human effort to overcome it ("internal" intensity). It is important to keep in mind that "external" intensity is objective, it is closely related to the power developed during exercise. The more power an athlete develops, the greater the intensity of his training will be.
Power is the amount of work done per unit of time. Power can be defined as work (F d) divided by the amount of time (Dt) or as the product of force (F) and speed (v). Work is a measure of how much an object can be moved in a certain direction when a force is applied.
"Internal" intensity- subjective, to a large extent it depends on the psychophysical abilities of a person. For example, explaining the impossibility of continuing the execution of the last repetition by the onset of the state of "failure", two different athletes can attach completely different meanings to this concept, reflecting significantly different amounts of their efforts when performing this repetition.
Consider examples of manifestation various kinds intensity
Suppose an athlete in one workout performs the bench press exercise with a 100 kg barbell for 6 repetitions, and in another workout with a weight of 90 kg for 12 repetitions. The pace, speed and other kinematic indicators are the same. However, the athlete managed to complete 6 repetitions with a weight of 100 kg quite easily, while 12 repetitions with a weight of 90 kg were performed "to failure", using one "forced" repetition. "External" load intensity will be greater in the first workout, "internal" - in the second.
However, in most cases, these characteristics are the same, which allows you to use the term "intensity" in relation to individual training sessions or periods of the training process.
Load volume- a characteristic associated with the work (U) performed by a person to overcome external resistance or to counteract it, as well as with the energy (E) expended by him in the manifestation of power abilities for this work. It is believed that the work done by the system is equal to the change in energy in the system, i.e. doing work requires energy. The relationship between work and energy can be written as
Doing 15 reps with a 80kg barbell will be more volumetric than squatting with a 120kg weight for 6 reps, however, less intense. An example of the manifestation of the maximum volumetric load will be marathon competitions, manifestations of the most intense load - weightlifting competitions.
In most cases, the characteristics "volume" and "intensity" in relation to a separate training session are at different poles. Usually, at various periods of macro- or mesocycles, either high-volume and low-intensity training, or low-volume and high-intensity training, or training with a different ratio of volume and intensity are used. Training at the same time and voluminous and intense are used only for a fairly limited period of time, within the so-called. "shock" microcycles, exerting an extremely stressful load on the athlete's body and forcing him to train during this period in conditions of underrecovery.
Consider examples of increasing intensity and volume during weight training.
The intensity increases with:
- Increasing the weight of the burden.
- Approaching the state of "failure" in the last repetitions of the approach.
- Reducing the pause between sets.
- An increase in the speed of movement ("external" intensity) or, sometimes, its decrease ("internal" intensity).
- Application of various techniques("forced repetitions", "cheating", "weight reduction method", "supersets", etc.)
The volume increases with:
- Increasing the number of repetitions in a separate approach.
- Increasing the number of sets per exercise.
- Increasing the number of exercises for a particular muscle group.
- the amount of physical activity - for example, an athlete performs squats with a weight of 80 kg 10 times in 5 sets. The load volume in one approach will be: 80kgX10 = 800 kg. It must be borne in mind that with a shortening of the amplitude of movement, the amount of load decreases proportionally.
- intensity or working weight
- speed or execution time
Controlling the specificity of the training impact of the load is the only way to improve the efficiency of the training system for high-class athletes (Verkhoshansky, 1988).
In order to choose the optimal variant of the training load that would correspond to this stage of training, it is necessary to first evaluate its effectiveness. When evaluating, one should proceed from the characteristics that determine, mainly, the qualitative and quantitative measure of the impact of the training load on the athlete's body, such as its content, volume, intensity and organization.
The fixation of the load volume consists, first of all, in a systematic and long-term violation of the body's homeostasis, which stimulates the mobilization of its energy resources and plastic reserve. The volume function can be correctly determined if the magnitude of the load, its duration and intensity are taken into account (Verkhoshansky, 1988).
Training load intensity(according to Verkhoshansky, 1985) is a criterion of the strength of its impact on the body or a measure of the intensity of training work. The intensity is regulated by the magnitude (strength) of the training potential of the means used, the frequency of their use, the rest intervals between repeated loads. Increasing the intensity of the training load is allowed at certain stages of training and only after preliminary training based on a low-intensity volume load.
The system of organizing the training load includes the ratio of the means of general, special and technical training in strict accordance with the time of the training stage.
In the theory and methodology of sports, the term "training load" is usually a quantitative measure of the training work performed. It is customary to distinguish between the concepts: external, internal and psychological stress (Matveev, 1999; Ozolin, 1980; Tumanyan, 1984, etc.). Viru (1981) distinguishes 5 types of loads: excessively large(near marginal); supporting(not enough to ensure further growth, but sufficient to avoid the reverse development of fitness); regenerating(insufficient to maintain the proper level, but speeding up recovery); small without significant physiological effect. In the future, it became necessary to expand the concept of external and internal load. Such concepts as the training potential (TP) of the load and its training effect (TE) were introduced.
The training potential of the load includes the presence in its composition of not only corresponding, but also exceeding the competitive conditions in terms of the maximum effort, the time of its development and the power of metabolic processes that ensure the performance of athletes (Verkhoshansky, 1988).
In general, this comes down to a linear representation and summation of training effects:
urgent TE -> delayed TE -> cumulative TE.
The term training effect is the current form of the body's response to exercise; delayed training effect is a change in the state of the body observed after a training session; cumulative training effect is the result of sequential summation by the body of all TEs created during the training process.
The results of the impact of the load are expressed in its total training effect, which is estimated, first of all, by the magnitude of changes in the athlete's state.
In his studies, Yu. V. Verkhoshansky (1985), for example, highlights the qualitative aspects of TE. According to him, cumulation as a phenomenon of generalization by the body of traces of training influences is not a simple summation and goes far beyond its scope. “Private TE” is singled out - the result of the impact of a load of one predominant direction or one means, and “cumulative TE” - the result of the body's generalization of the effects of loads of various predominant directions, applied simultaneously or sequentially.
Obviously, the effect of an athlete's training largely depends on the correct organization of the training process, where it is necessary to clearly understand what TE should be expected in each specific case and what should be done to achieve it. For practical purposes, the training effect is evaluated according to two criteria - temporary (urgent and delayed) and qualitative (private and cumulative).
TE classification can be more detailed. The physiological nature of TE is so complex, and the forms of manifestation are so diverse that its exhaustive characterization is possible only on the basis of knowledge of the features of TE, its content and organization in educational training process. Cumulation can be instantaneous (the body's reaction to one training task), cumulative (the body's reaction to training influences of various directions at long stages of preparation), and finally, positive or negative. Under the influence of physical activity, changes occur in the body. sports training in fact, it is a means of changing the conditions of the organism's existence, designed to achieve certain adaptive changes in it. The physiological meaning of the body's adaptation to external and internal influences is to maintain homeostasis and, accordingly, the viability of the body in almost any conditions to which it is able to adequately respond (Pavlov, 1999).
The quantitative and qualitative responses of an organism to changes in the environment depend, first of all, on its initial state, the strength and specific qualities of the change in the environment (impact).
The initial state of the athlete is due, on the one hand, to his genetic potential, on the other hand, the realization of this potential depending on the previous conditions of his life activity (including, among other things, the direction of the previously used training loads).
It is necessary to assess the initial state not only at the beginning of any stage of preparation, but also before each training session and during it, in order to determine the level and direction of changes occurring during the training process, and further planning and correction of the training process.
One of the tasks is the choice of the form of building a training session on an organizational basis. A common form of building a workout is a complex one, which provides for the simultaneous and parallel solution of a number of training tasks and the use of loads of a predominant orientation. The complex form, depending on the tasks and stage of preparation, has its positive and negative sides. So, volumetric complex loads, providing for the simultaneous improvement sports equipment and special physical fitness, can lead to general functional fatigue. But if the above volumes of work will have some predominant influence, then this can be avoided. Under conditions of increased volumes and intensity of loads, it is difficult to differentiate their influence on specialized sensations. The way out, according to Yu. V. Verkhoshansky (1977), should be sought in “... the rational use of the loads of one training orientation both in a separate lesson and at the stage of one or another orientation.”
In the practice of training highly qualified athletes, a special form of concentration of the volume of loads was developed - its concentration at certain stages of training.
The fundamental novelty of this technique lies in the creation of a massive training effect on the athlete's body with the help of a high volume of unidirectional loads during a time-limited (up to 2 months) stage. Based on the concept of preparing the Ukrainian national team for the Olympic Games, a program is being developed, part of which is the improvement and development of the speed-strength qualities of the muscles involved in the shock movements of boxers, at the general preparatory stage preparatory period. We are talking about concentrated unidirectional loads (hereinafter we will refer to the experience of preparing the Ukrainian national team for the 1996-2008 Olympic Games).
The most important condition when using concentrated loads is the relatively low intensity of the means, since their frequent use in itself leads to an intensification of the training process. The load can be considered practically concentrated if its volume in the month in which it is concentrated is 23-25% of the total annual load (Verkhoshansky, 1977). The reception of a concentrated load is advisable, first of all, to increase the level of SFP, and for this, loads of any predominant direction can be used, but the concentration of specialized power loads is of particular importance. Concentrated power load also has disadvantages. It leads to a temporary, but steady decrease in speed-strength indicators, which negatively affects the special performance of an athlete and complicates the solution of tasks related to improvement. technical excellence and speed of movement. According to Filimonov (1989), a negative effect of volumetric power loads on the speed of punching boxers was established. Therefore, a concentrated load should be used carefully and, mainly, at the “long-term” stages of preparation for competitions. main idea this method designed for a long-term delayed training effect (DOTE). The DOTE effect was developed by a group of scientists led by Yu. V. Verkhoshansky. Below we present the main features of the long-term adaptation of the training of athletes of the highest ranks.
The main provisions of the DOTE effect should include (Verkhoshansky, 1985):
- the main condition for obtaining the effect of DOTE is a concentrated, i.e., volumetric power load concentrated at a time-limited stage, which provides the possibility of an in-depth unidirectional training effect on the athlete's body;
- the formation of DOTE includes two phases: in the first, conditions are created for its occurrence, in the second, its implementation takes place;
- the stronger (within optimal limits) the speed-strength indicators are reduced at the stage of concentration of the power load, the higher their subsequent rise in the implementation phase;
- the means used in training should not be intense;
- the implementation of DOTE of a concentrated power load is facilitated by moderate general developmental work, combined with work of a special nature;
- the duration of the manifestation of DOTE is determined by the volume and duration of the application of a concentrated power load. In principle, a stable manifestation of DOTE is equal in duration to the stage of strength work. In real conditions of training of highly qualified athletes, this trend is observed with the duration of the stage strength training from 4 weeks or more (up to 12);
- during the implementation of DOTE, athletes easily endure intense loads, but react negatively to volumetric work. Intense and short-term power work can be used in a small amount as a means of toning the neuromuscular system in preparation for competitions, as well as to maintain the achieved level of speed-strength training.
Now you know what power is, a power meter and why you should use power data during training. Surely you still have the question of how to train for power. And in this short article we will talk about it.
First of all, after installing and calibrating the power meter, you need to pass the FTP test. FTP stands for Functional Threshold Power, often referred to as Functional Power, Threshold Power, or MTF for short. FTP is the maximum average power you can handle for an hour. Roughly speaking, this is the maximum number of watts that you can withstand for an hour. Using your FTP score (FTM), you can calculate individual power training zones (we'll cover this in a separate article), as well as personalize any training plans that are based on power readings.
FTP is the maximum average power you can handle for an hour. FTP stands for Functional Threshold Power, often referred to as Functional Power, Threshold Power, or MTF for short.
Any power workouts are based on a profile as a percentage of FTP. So, a 10-minute warm-up might consist of gradually increasing power from 50% FTP to 80% FTP. Assuming your FTP is 200 watts, then for the first 10 minutes you should smoothly increase the load from 100 watts to 160 watts. Thus, using your personal FTP rate, you can easily adapt any training plan according to your skill level.
How to find out your FTP level (FPM)
Assuming you already have a power meter installed and calibrated on your bike, you will need to complete a simple 20-minute test.
This test is best viewed as a separate workout. A minimum of 2 days of rest is required to fully recover before testing. Warm up well and get ready for a 20-minute workout at the highest possible intensity. Distribute your strength in such a way as to maintain a constant, maximum possible intensity for 20 minutes. After a good warm up, press the lap cutoff on the go to start the 20 minute test and drive those 20 minutes as hard as you can. It is not necessary at the very beginning of the segment to give all the best: distribute your strength for 20 minutes, in ascending order. It is best when the power peak occurs in the last 5 minutes. Take a good break after completing the 20-minute stretch and take readings from the bike computer. The FTP value can be calculated as the average power over this 20-minute segment, multiplied by an error of 0.95. The resulting figure will be very close to the actual value of FTP. For example, your average power over a 20-minute segment was 250 watts. This means your FTP is 237 watts.
1. Warm up well and get ready for a 20-minute cut at the highest possible intensity; 2. Complete the 20 minute FTP detection test.
Well, if you are a happy owner of an exercise bike, then download the Trainer Road software and go to a whole new level of training. For only $12/month ($99/year) you get full access to power-based workouts and plans. Among them, you will find three options for the FTP test: 2x8 minutes, 20 minutes and 2x20 minutes.
Talking about power, you can often hear the opinion that power meters are built for professional athletes . Indeed, it is not easy to find a professional rider without a meter now, but we are convinced that power meter equally relevant for athletes amateurs who have very limited time for training.
Power meter training is the right way avoid any junk (extra) work. Aimless cycling affects form in a very limited way and by and large does not improve athletic performance. If for a number of reasons you are limited in time (work, family, personal life, finally), you just need to get rid of any junk workouts.
Many amateur athletes who have started training with power note that during the time of using one heart rate monitor they were just riding, and after using the power meter they began to really train.
So, you have passed the FTP test and found out your indicators, what's next? We already wrote a short Action plan (action plan), we will publish it again:
- Pass the FTP Test
We have already dealt with this (see above). - Consult with a specialist
Any modern professional trainer will attest to the effectiveness of power use when putting together an individual training plan. - Define a goal
Even if your goal is just to ride a bike, the power data will help you distribute power more efficiently, which will make your rides much more enjoyable. But if the goal is a specific race, using power data will help you reach peak form for a responsible start. - Choose a program to collect and analyze workouts
There are many programs that allow you to accumulate data from your workouts. Many programs such asStrava analyzes your power data in an easy-to-understand way, giving you information about your fitness and recovery needs. A special software Trainer Road allows you to choose an individual training plan to achieve your goals. It is also effective and much cheaper than training in special bike studios. - act
During the performance of training loads, the energy supply of working muscles is carried out in three ways, depending on the intensity of work: 1) combustion (oxidation) of carbohydrates (glycogen) and fats with the participation of oxygen - aerobic energy supply; 2) breakdown of glycogen - anaerobic-glycolytic energy supply 3) breakdown of creatine phosphate. In the theory of sports and sports practice, the following classification of training loads is accepted, depending on their intensity and the nature of physiological changes in the athlete's body, when performing the appropriate load:
1st intensity zone - aerobic recovery (“background loads”: warm-up, cool-down, recovery exercises);
2nd zone of intensity - aerobic developing;
3rd zone of intensity - mixed aerobic-anaerobic;
4th zone of intensity - anaerobic-glycolytic;
The 5th intensity zone is anaerobic-alactate.
Let's look at each intensity zone in more detail.
The first zone of intensity. Aerobic recovery. Training loads in this intensity zone are used as a means of recovery after training with high and high loads, after competitions, in the transition period. The so-called "background loads" also correspond to this zone.
The intensity of the exercises performed is moderate (near the threshold of aerobic metabolism). Heart rate (HR) - 130-140 beats per minute (bpm). The concentration of lactic acid in the blood (lactate) is up to 2-3 millimoles per liter (Mm / l). The level of oxygen consumption is 50-60% of the IPC (maximum oxygen consumption). Duration of work from 20-30 minutes to 1 hour. The main sources of energy (biochemical substrates) are carbohydrates (glycogen) and fats.
The second zone of intensity. Aerobic developing. The training load in this intensity zone is used for long duration exercises. with moderate intensity. Such work is necessary to increase the functionality of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, as well as to raise the level of overall performance.
The intensity of the exercises performed - up to the threshold level of anaerobic metabolism, that is, the concentration of lactic acid in the muscles and blood - up to 20 mm/l.; Heart rate - 140-160 beats / min. The level of oxygen consumption is from 60 to 80% of the IPC.
The speed of movement in cyclic exercises is 50-80% of the maximum speed (on a segment lasting 3-4 seconds, overcome from the move at the maximum possible speed in this exercise). The bioenergetic substance is glycogen.
When performing training loads in this intensity zone, continuous and interval methods. Duration of work during the training load continuous method is up to 2-3 hours or more. To increase the level of aerobic capacity, continuous work with uniform and variable speed.
Continuous work with variable intensity involves the alternation of a low-intensity segment (HR 140-145 beats / min.) And an intensive segment (HR 160-170 beats / min.).
Using the interval method, the duration of individual exercises can be from 1-2 minutes. up to 8-10 min. The intensity of individual exercises can be determined by heart rate (by the end of the exercise, heart rate should be 160-170 beats / min.). The duration of rest intervals is also regulated by heart rate (by the end of the rest pause, heart rate should be 120-130 beats / min.). The use of the interval method is very effective for increasing the ability to deploy the functionality of the circulatory and respiratory systems as quickly as possible. This is explained by the fact that the method of conducting interval training involves frequent changes from intense work to passive rest. Therefore, during one lesson, the activity of the circulatory and respiratory systems is repeatedly “turned on” and activated to near-limit values, which helps to shorten the process of working out.
The continuous method of training improves the functionality of the oxygen transport system, improves blood supply to the muscles. The use of the continuous method ensures the development of the ability to maintain high values of oxygen consumption for a long time.
The third zone of intensity. Mixed aerobic-anaerobic. The intensity of the exercises performed should be above the anaerobic metabolic rate threshold (ANOT), heart rate - 160-180 bpm. The concentration of lactic acid in the blood (lactate) is up to 10-12 m-m / l. The level of oxygen consumption is approaching the maximum (IPC). The speed of performing cyclic exercises is 85-90% of the maximum speed. The main bioenergetic substance is glycogen (its oxidation and breakdown).
When performing work in this zone, along with the maximum intensification of aerobic productivity, there is a significant intensification of the anaerobic-glycolytic mechanisms of energy generation.
Basic training methods: continuous method with uniform and variable intensity and interval method. When performing work by the interval method, the duration of individual exercises is from 1-2 minutes. up to 6-8 min. Rest intervals are regulated by heart rate (at the end of the rest pause, heart rate is 120 beats / min.) Or up to 2-3 minutes. The duration of work in one lesson is up to 1-1.5 hours.
The fourth zone of intensity. Anaerobic-glycolytic. The intensity of the exercises performed is 90-95% of the maximum available. Heart rate over 180 beats / min. The concentration of lactic acid in the blood reaches the limit values - up to 20 Mm / l. and more.
Exercises aimed at increasing the capacity of glycolysis should be performed with a high oxygen debt.
The following technique contributes to the solution of this problem: performance of exercises with submaximal intensity with incomplete or reduced rest intervals, in which the next exercise is performed against the background of under-recovery of operational performance.
Performing exercises in this intensity zone can only be interval (or interval-serial). The duration of individual exercises is from 30 seconds to 2-3 minutes. Rest pauses are incomplete or shortened (40-60 sec.).
The total amount of work in one lesson is up to 40-50 minutes. The main bioenergetic substance is muscle glycogen.
Fifth zone of intensity. Anaerobic-alactate.
To increase anaerobic-alactate capabilities (speed, speed abilities) apply exercises lasting from 3 to 15 seconds with maximum intensity. Heart rate indicators in this intensity zone are not informative, since in 15 seconds the cardiovascular and respiratory system cannot reach their even near-maximum operational performance.
Speed abilities in general limited by the power and capacity of the creatine phosphate mechanism. The concentration of lactic acid in the blood is low - 5-8 Mm / l. The main bioenergetic substance is creatine phosphate.
When performing exercises in this intensity zone, despite the short duration of the exercises performed (up to 15 seconds), the rest intervals should be sufficient to restore creatine phosphate in the muscles (full rest intervals). The duration of rest pauses, depending on the duration of the exercise, ranges from 1.5 to 2-3 minutes.
Training work should be performed serial-interval: 2-4 series, 4-5 repetitions in each series. Between series, rest should be longer - 5-8 minutes, which is filled with low-intensity work. The need for a longer rest between series is explained by the fact that the reserves of creatine phosphate in the muscles are small and by 5-6 repetitions they are largely exhausted, and in the process of a longer inter-series rest they are restored.
The duration of training work in one lesson in this intensity zone is up to 40-50 minutes.
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Training load and indicators characterizing it
1. Physical activity as a quantitative and qualitative measure of the exercises (means) used by the cyclist
The load is the impact exercise on the athlete's body, causing an active reaction of his functional systems, transferring the body to a higher level of its energy capabilities.
Classification of loads in sports:
They are divided into training, competitive, specific and non-specific;
In size - into small, medium, significant or (near-marginal) and large (or marginal);
In terms of focus - on contributing to the improvement of motor abilities (speed, strength, coordination, endurance, flexibility) or their components (for example, alactate or lactate anaerobic capabilities), improving the coordination structure of movements, components of mental preparedness, tactical skill;
According to the coordination complexity - to those associated with the execution of movements of high coordination complexity;
According to mental tension - depending on the requirements for the athlete's mental capabilities - into more intense and less intense.
Loads are also distinguished by belonging to one or another structural formation of the training process.
In particular, it is necessary to distinguish between the loads of individual training and competitive exercises or their complexes, the loads of training sessions, days, the total loads of micro and mesocycles, periods and stages of preparation, macrocycles, a training year.
The value of training and competitive loads can be characterized from the "external" and "internal" sides.
The "outer" side of the load in the most general view can be represented by indicators of the total (quantitative) amount of work. Among them: the total amount of work in hours, the amount of cyclic work (number of sessions, duration in kilometers and hours, number of repetitions, riding speed, pedaling pace, gear size, etc.) To fully characterize the "external" side of the training load, partial volumes loads reflecting planning in the total amount of work performed with increased intensity or contributing to the predominant improvement of certain aspects of preparedness. To do this, determine, for example, the percentage of intensity of work in its total volume, the ratio of work aimed at developing individual qualities and abilities, means of general and special training and others. To assess the "external" side of the load of cyclists, indicators of its intensity are widely used. The measure of intensity is the cost of energy per unit of time, that is, power. Different intensity of overcoming segments of the distance can mobilize one or another way of energy generation.
A small load is provided by the performance of work equal to 20-25% of the volume of work at a large load. The criterion of low load is the coordinated activity of the musculoskeletal system, the functional systems of the body and the vegetative nervous system, that is, the formation of a stable state of performance.
The average load is characterized by work that makes up 40--50% of the volume of work under heavy load, is performed until signs of a violation of the steady state of the body appear.
A significant load is characterized by work in a steady state, in which there is no decrease in performance. Work is 70--75% of the volume of work under heavy load. The criterion for a significant load is the appearance of persistent signs of compensated fatigue.
A large load refers to developing loads, which are characterized by pronounced functional changes in the athlete's body and cause a sharp decrease in performance, cause a significant level of fatigue, the athlete's inability to continue working in a given mode. Such loads according to the integral effect on the body can be expressed in terms of 100 and 80%. The recovery period of the involved functional systems is 48-96 and 24-48 hours, respectively. To create a heavy load, an athlete should set such a volume of work that corresponds to his level of preparedness. The criterion for a heavy load is the athlete's inability to continue working in a given mode. The value of the training load is a derivative of the intensity and volume of work. Their increase can occur simultaneously up to a certain point. In the future, an increase in intensity leads to a decrease in volume and, conversely, an increase in the volume of work entails a forced decrease in its intensity. The amount of training load in a session is usually understood as the duration and total amount of work done during a single training session.
2. Indicators characterizing the "external" and "internal" sides of the load
Objective indicators of external load assessment are skin color, concentration, facial expressions, quality of task performance, mood, general well-being.
However, the load is most fully characterized with " inside”, i.e. according to the reaction of the body to the work performed, according to the degree of mobilization of the functional systems of the cyclist's body when he performs work and are characterized by the magnitude of physiological, biochemical and other changes in the functional state of organs and systems due to it.
According to this principle, five zones of training loads are distinguished in practice.
1st zone -- aerobic recovery. The immediate training effect is associated with an increase in heart rate up to 140-145 beats/min. Oxygen consumption reaches 40-70% of the IPC. Energy is provided by the oxidation of fats (50% or more), muscle glycogen and blood glucose. Lactate in the blood does not exceed 2 mmol / l. Work is provided by slow muscle fibers (SMF). Work in this zone is performed from several minutes to several hours. It stimulates recovery processes, improves aerobic capacity (general endurance).
2nd zone - aerobically developing. The immediate training effect is associated with an increase in heart rate to 160-175 beats / min. Blood lactate up to 4 mmol / l, oxygen consumption from the IPC 60-90%. Energy is provided by the oxidation of carbohydrates (muscle glycogen and glucose). The work is provided by slow muscle fibers (SMF) and fast muscle fibers (FMF) of type “a”, which are able to oxidize lactate to a lesser extent, it grows from 2 to 4 mmol / l. The load stimulates the development of special endurance, strength endurance. This zone is typical for road racing.
3rd zone - mixed aerobic-anaerobic. The immediate training effect in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate up to 180--185 beats / min, blood lactate up to 8-10 mmol / l, oxygen consumption 80-100% of the IPC. The work is provided by slow and fast muscle fibers of type “b”, which are not able to oxidize lactate, its content in muscles and blood increases, which reflexively causes an increase in pulmonary ventilation and the formation of oxygen debt. This zone is typical for road team racing. Competitive activity in this mode can last up to 1.5-2 hours.
4th zone - anaerobic-glycolytic. The immediate training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in blood lactate from 10 to 20 mmol/l. Heart rate is at the level of 180-200 beats / min. Oxygen consumption is reduced from 100 to 80% of the MIC. Energy is provided by carbohydrates. Work is performed by all three types of muscle units. Training activity does not exceed 10-15 minutes. Competitive activity in this zone lasts from 20 s. up to 6-10 min. This zone is typical in individual and team pursuit. The main method is the method of integral intensive exercise. Scope of work in different types sports ranges from 2 to 7%.
5th zone - anaerobic-alactate. The work is short-term, does not exceed 15-20 s. in one repetition. Blood lactate, heart rate and pulmonary ventilation do not have time to reach high levels. Oxygen consumption drops significantly. Energy supply occurs anaerobically due to the use of ATP and CF, after 10 s. glycolysis begins to connect to energy supply, and lactate accumulates in the muscles. Work is provided by all types of muscle units. The total training activity does not exceed 120-150 s. for one training session. It stimulates the development of speed, speed-strength, maximum-strength abilities. This zone is typical for the preparation of sprinters. The volume of work in different sports is from 1 to 5%.
The external and internal characteristics of the load are closely interconnected: an increase in the volume and intensity of training work leads to an increase in shifts in the functional state of various systems and organs, to the emergence and deepening of fatigue processes, and a slowdown in recovery processes. It is quite difficult to assess the total volume and intensity of the load in the annual cycle, in the training session and in the training exercise as a whole. But still these parameters are measurable, and they can be planned and evaluated.
The training process also includes rational rest, during which there is a recovery after loads and optimization of the effect of loads. The duration of rest periods between the passage of segments of the distance is considered to be an integral part of the training load, which largely determines its direction. The duration of rest periods is set taking into account the speed of recovery after the work done and the tasks set by the coach in the lesson.
Within the same lesson, three types of intervals should be distinguished:
Full (ordinary) intervals, guaranteeing by the time of the next repetition almost the same restoration of working capacity that was before its previous execution.
Stressful (incomplete) intervals, during which the next load falls into the state of some under-restoration of working capacity.
- “Minimax” interval is the smallest rest interval between exercises, after which there is increased performance (supercompensation), which occurs under certain conditions.
During passive rest, the athlete does not perform any work,
when active -- fills pauses with additional activity. Rationally organized rest provides recovery of working capacity after training loads and serves as one of the means of optimizing the effect of loads, long-term adaptation of the body to training loads. In track training, passive rest is predominantly used, and it is rarely used in the training process of racers specializing in the road. As active rest it is advisable to use cycling or other low-intensity work.
In order to build the training process correctly, it is necessary to know what effect training and competitive loads, different in magnitude and direction, have on the athlete's body, what is the dynamics and duration of recovery processes after them.
Considering the fact that, according to many sports experts, the reserves for increasing training loads in cycling with regard to road racing, therefore, coaches must find methods that are selectively aimed at developing the qualities of the cyclist that he needs to achieve maximum results, taking into account his individual abilities. The load, even with its homogeneous structure, can cause various internal shifts in the body. It depends on individual performance at the time of training and environmental conditions: air temperature and humidity, wind strength and direction, track profile and coverage, altitude, equipment quality, sportswear.
In cases where the modern organizational and methodological concept of training high-class athletes assumes as mandatory condition the use of several training sessions during one day with different loads, it is necessary to know and take into account the patterns of fluctuations functional state organism and the physiological mechanisms that cause these fluctuations.
4. Components of the load and their influence on the formation of adaptation reactions
Considering the features of urgent and long-term adaptation in connection with the nature of the exercises used, one should point out the unequal adaptive reactions of the body when using exercises that involve different volumes of the muscle mass. For example, when performing long-term exercises of a local nature, involving less than 1/3 of the muscles, the athlete's performance depends little on the capabilities of the oxygen transport system, but is primarily determined by the capabilities of the oxygen utilization system. Because of this, such exercises lead to specific changes in the muscles associated with an increase in the number and density of functioning capillaries, an increase in the number and density of mitochondria, as well as their ability to use the oxygen transported by the blood for ATP synthesis (Hollmann and Hettinger, 1980). The effect of exercises of a local nature is especially increased if methodological techniques or technical means that increase the burden on workers muscle groups(Platonov, 1984).
The use of partial exercises, involving up to 40--60% of the muscle mass, provides a wider impact on the athlete's body, from increasing the capabilities of individual systems (for example, the oxygen transport system) to achieving optimal coordination of motor and autonomic functions in the conditions of using training and competitive loads.
However, exercises of a global nature, involving more than 60--70% of the muscle mass, have the strongest effect on the athlete's body. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the central adaptive changes, for example, of endocrine or thermoregulatory functions, as well as heart muscles, depend only on the volume of functioning muscles and are not related to their localization.
An important point in ensuring effective adaptation is the compliance of the exercises used with the requirements of the effective competitive activity of a particular sport. The discrepancy between the nature of the exercises and the given direction of adaptation muscle tissue leads to inadequate specialization of changes in their metabolism, which is confirmed by the data of electron microscopic and histochemical studies. In particular, in individuals who have a muscle tissue structure characteristic of sprinters, but who train and act as stayers, there is an expansion of interfibrillar spaces in muscle fibers due to edema and destruction of individual myofibrils, their longitudinal splitting, depletion of glycogen stores, destruction of mitochondria. The result of such training is often necrosis muscle fibers. This fully applies to the disciplines of cycling - BMX and track, where the use of a large amount of aerobic training is unacceptable.
In individuals with a stayer structure of muscle tissue, but training and performing as sprinters, excessive hypertrophy of a number of myofibrils is observed in muscle fibers, destruction zones are noted, covering
1-3 sarcomeres of muscle fibers, individual fibers are in a state of pronounced contracture, etc. (Sergeev, Yazvikov, 1984).
Features of urgent adaptive reactions also depend on the degree of mastering the exercises used. The adaptation of the athlete's body to standard loads associated with the solution of known motor tasks is accompanied by smaller shifts in the activity of the supporting system compared to the one where the motor task is of a probabilistic nature. A more pronounced reaction to such loads is associated with increased emotional arousal, less effective intra- and intermuscular coordination, as well as coordination of motor and autonomic functions (Berger, 1994, Platonov, 1997).
Considering the intensity of work as the degree of intensity of the activity of the functional system of the body, which ensures the effective performance of a particular exercise, it should be noted its exceptionally large influence on the nature of energy supply, the involvement of various motor units, formation of the coordination structure of movements, corresponding to the requirements of effective competitive activity.
Rice. 1 Relationship between cycling speed and 0 2 consumption in skilled road cyclists (Rugh, 1974)
From the results of studies (Rugh, 1974) conducted with the participation of qualified road cyclists (Fig. 1.), we see that if an increase in travel speed from 10 to 20 km/h leads to an increase in V0 2 by 8 ml-kg-min ., then with an increase in speed from 30 to 40 km / h, i.e. also by 10 km, VO 2 increases already by 17 ml-kg-min. This is valid not only for dynamic work, but also for static work. It has been established (Ahiborg et al., 1972) that static power work to a certain degree of tension is provided by aerobic energy sources. The maximum content of lactate and pyruvate is found when working to exhaustion in the event that the magnitude of the voltage fluctuates between 30--60% of the maximum static force. When using stresses less than 15% of the maximum static force, there was no increase in the amount of lactate and pyruvate, i.e., the work was completely performed by aerobic energy sources.
Thus, the selection of work intensity predetermines the nature of urgent and long-term adaptive reactions of the energy supply system. For example, with different intensity of performing local exercises involving small volumes of the muscle mass, there is a fundamentally different increase in peripheral (local) endurance. The smallest training effect is observed when working with high intensity, which is due to the activation of large volumes of BS fibers and a short duration of work. A decrease in the intensity of work and at the same time a sharp increase in its duration contribute to an increase in the effectiveness of training. This is of fundamental importance for the choice of optimal training means aimed at increasing peripheral endurance.
Loads in the range of 90% V0 2 max and above are largely associated with the inclusion of anaerobic energy sources in the work and cover the BS-muscle fibers, which is confirmed by the elimination of glycogen from them. If the intensity of the load does not exceed TAN, then the work mainly uses the MS fibers of the muscles, which is decisive for the development of endurance for long-term work (Henriksson, 1992; Mohan et al., 2001), as shown in Fig. 2. This is what the authors of the works (Reindell, Roskamm, Gerschler, 1962) did not take into account in their time, where the interval method with “acting” pauses was recommended as the most effective for increasing aerobic performance. Such training primarily affects the BS fibers and is much less effective for the MC fibers of the muscles compared to continuous training. At the same time, the higher the intensity of work at interval training, the more anaerobic (alactate and lactate) abilities are improved and the less aerobic. The interval method, equally increasing the aerobic capabilities of all types of fibers and at the same time contributing to an increase in the anaerobic capabilities of BS fibers, is only therefore inferior to the continuous method in terms of the effectiveness of improving aerobic performance. The reduction in volume of work along with the increase in the amount of lactate during interval training negatively affect its effectiveness, since it is known that high intracellular concentrations of lactate can disrupt the structure and function of mitochondria.
When determining the optimal level of intensity of work aimed at increasing aerobic capacity, it is also necessary to ensure that high values of cardiac output and systolic volume are provided as critical factors optimization of adaptive reactions in all links of the oxygen transport system (see Fig. 3.)
Rice. 2. Regional distribution of blood flow at rest and during exercise of varying intensity (Mohan et al., 2001)
To a large extent, the features of adaptation depend on the duration of the exercises, their total number in the programs of individual classes or a series of classes, and rest intervals between exercises. The need for strict planning and control of these load components in order to achieve the desired adaptation effect is evidenced by the following. To increase alactic anaerobic capacity associated with an increase in the reserves of high-energy phosphorus compounds, short-term loads (5-10 s) of maximum intensity are most acceptable.
Rice. 3. The volume of the left ventricle of the heart at rest and during exercise of varying intensity (Poliner et al., 1980)
Significant pauses (up to 2-3 minutes) allow you to restore high-energy phosphates and avoid significant activation of glycolysis when performing regular portions of work. However, it should be taken into account here that such loads, providing the maximum activation of alactic energy sources, are not able to lead to more than 50% depletion of the alactic energy depots of muscles. To the almost complete exhaustion of alactic anaerobic sources during exercise, and consequently, to an increase in the reserves of high-energy phosphates, work of maximum intensity for 60–90 s leads, i.e. such work, which is highly effective for improving the process of glycolysis (Di Rampero, DiLimas and Sassi, 1980).
Taking into account that the maximum formation of lactate is usually noted after 40–45 s, and work mainly due to glycolysis usually lasts for 60–90 s, it is work of this duration that is used to increase glycolytic capabilities.
Rice. 4. The maximum concentration of lactate in the blood of the same test athlete after 13 different variants of the maximum load on the treadmill (Hermansen, 1972)
Rest pauses should not be long so that the lactate value does not decrease significantly. This will help both increase the power of the glycolytic process and increase its capacity.
The amount of lactate in the muscles during maximum intensity work significantly depends on its duration. The maximum values of lactate are observed at the duration of work in the range of 1.5--5.0 min; a further increase in the duration of work is associated with a significant decrease in the concentration of lactate. Fig 4
This should be taken into account when choosing the duration of work aimed at increasing lactate anaerobic productivity.
However, it should be taken into account that the concentration of lactate when performing exercises in the interval mode is much higher than during continuous work (Fig. 5), and the constant increase in lactate from repetition to repetition during short-term exercises indicates the increasing role of glycolysis with an increase in the number of repetitions. Short-term loads performed at maximum intensity and leading to a decrease in performance due to progressive fatigue are associated with the mobilization of glycogen stores in muscle LF fibers, and a decrease in the concentration of glycogen in MC fibers is insignificant. When performing prolonged work, the situation is reversed: the depletion of glycogen stores primarily occurs in the MS fibers. (Fig. 6.) Relatively short-term intensive loads are characterized by a rapid consumption of muscle glycogen and a slight use of liver glycogen, therefore, with such systematic loads, the glycogen content in the muscles increases, while in the liver, as well as the total glycogen store, almost does not change. An increase in glycogen stores in the liver is associated with the use of long-term loads of moderate intensity or the performance of a large number of high-speed exercises in individual training programs.
A prolonged aerobic load leads to an intensive involvement of fats in metabolic processes, which become the main source of energy. For example, while running for a distance of 100 km, the total energy expenditure is on average 29,300 kJ (7,000 kcal). Half of this energy is provided by the oxidation of carbohydrates and fatty acids, 24% of the total energy consumption is due to intracellular reserves of carbohydrates and fats, the rest of the substrates are obtained by muscle cells with blood from the depot of the subcutaneous fatty base, liver and other organs (Oberholer et alt., 1976 ).
Rice. Fig. 6. Glycogen concentration in muscle fibers during short-term intense (a) and long-term moderate (b) exercises (Volkov et al., 2000)
Various components of aerobic performance can be improved only with prolonged single loads or with in large numbers short exercise. In particular, local aerobic endurance can be fully increased when performing long-term loads exceeding 60% of the maximum available in duration. As a result of such training, a complex of hemodynamic and metabolic changes occurs in the muscles. Hemodynamic changes are mainly expressed in the improvement of capillarization, intramuscular redistribution of blood; metabolic - in an increase in intramuscular glycogen, hemoglobin, an increase in the number and volume of mitochondria, an increase in the activity of oxidative enzymes and the proportion of fat oxidation compared to carbohydrates (De Vries, Housh, 1994).
Long-term work of a certain direction in the programs of individual classes leads to a decrease in its training effect or a significant change in the direction of the predominant impact. So, long-term work of an aerobic nature is associated with a gradual decrease in the maximum possible indicators of oxygen consumption. Aerobic exercise(veloergometric) for 70-80 minutes at a work intensity of 70-80% of U0 2 max, leads to a decrease in oxygen consumption by an average of 8%, a load for 100 minutes by 14% (Hollmann, Hettinger , 1980). A decrease in oxygen consumption is accompanied by a decrease in systolic blood volume by 10–15%, an increase in heart rate by 15–20%, a decrease in mean arterial pressure by 5–10%, and an increase in minute respiratory volume by 10–15% (Hoffman, 2002; Wilmore and Costill, 2004).
However, it should be borne in mind that as long-term work of varying intensity is performed, not so much quantitative as qualitative changes occur in the activity of the organs and systems of the body. For example, when performing long-term continuous or interval work of an aerobic orientation, glycogen stores in MC fibers are first depleted, and only at the end of it, with the development of fatigue, in BS fibers (Shephard, 1992; Platonov, Bulatoba 2003). In qualified athletes, aerobic work for two hours leads to the depletion of glycogen in the MC fibers. With an increase in the duration of the work performed, the glycogen stores in the BS fibers are gradually depleted. A sharp increase in the intensity of training influences (for example, multiple repetitions of 15–30-second exercises with high intensity and short pauses) is associated with the primary depletion of glycogen stores in BS fibers, and only after a large number of repetitions, glycogen stores in MS fibers are depleted (Henriksoon, 1992). To achieve the desired training effect, it is also important to choose the optimal duration of training loads and the frequency of their use. Studies have shown that for the formation of peripheral adaptation, which provides an increase in the level of aerobic endurance in trained individuals, the most effective are six times a week (Fig. 7) loads of maximum duration (Fig. 8).
Rice. 7. Influence of the frequency of training sessions (6 times a week - /, 3 times a week - 2) on the development of aerobic local dynamic muscle endurance (Ikai, Taguchi, 1969)
Rice. 8. Influence of the duration of work in individual training sessions (1 - limit; 2 - 2/3 limit; 3 - 1/2 limit) on the development of aerobic peripheral dynamic muscle endurance (Ikai, Taguchi, 1969)
Three-time loads, as well as loads, the duration of which is 1/2 or 2/3 of the maximum available, lead to a smaller training effect.
It is quite clear that the differences in the training effect of loads of different duration and used with different frequency largely depend on the fitness and qualifications of athletes. Poorly trained or unskilled athletes adapt effectively even when planning two or three workouts a week for a relatively short duration. Thus, complex planning of load components, based on objective knowledge, is an effective tool for the formation of a given urgent and long-term adaptation.
5. Specificity of reactions of adaptation of the athlete's body to the load
With regard to various types of physical activity used in modern workout, there are specific adaptive reactions due to the peculiarities of neurohumoral regulation, the degree of activity of various organs and functional mechanisms.
With effective adaptation to given loads that have specific characteristics, nerve centers, individual organs and functional mechanisms related to various anatomical structures of the body are combined into a single complex, which is the basis on which urgent and long-term adaptive reactions are formed.
The specificity of urgent and long-term adaptation is clearly manifested even under loads characterized by the same predominant direction, duration, intensity, and differing only in the nature of the exercises. With a specific load, athletes are able to show higher functional capabilities compared to a non-specific load. As an example confirming this position, in Fig. Figure 9 shows the individual values of V0 2 max for highly qualified road cyclists when tested on a bicycle ergometer and a treadmill. Increased capabilities of the autonomic nervous system when performing specific loads are largely stimulated by the formation of appropriate mental states in response to specific means of training.
Rice. Fig. 9. The values of maximum oxygen uptake in highly skilled road cyclists under load on a bicycle ergometer and a treadmill (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980)
It is known that mental states as a dynamic impact of mental processes are a mobile system that is formed in accordance with the requirements dictated by specific activities. In a tense environment physical activity extreme demands are often made on mental processes. In response to certain, frequently occurring intense stimuli, mental resistance to stress is formed, which manifests itself in the redistribution of functional capabilities - an increase in the abilities of the psyche of the most significant ones to achieve the goal, with a pronounced decrease in other, less significant ones. In this case, a syndrome of “super-manifestations” of the psyche arises in the direction of information retrieval processes, motivation, and arbitrary control of behavior (Rodionov, 1973; Kellman, Kallus, 2001).
Along with higher limiting values of shifts in the activity of functional systems that carry the main load at specific loads compared to non-specific ones, they note the rapid deployment of the required level of functional activity, i.e. intensive development when using habitual loads (for example, the quick adaptability of the heart of a high-class athlete specializing in skiing, to the competitive load) and exceptionally high activity of the heart both before the start and in the process of passing the distance. Pay attention to the values of heart rate before the start, the rapid achievement of maximum values and their higher level compared to the work of maximum intensity on a bicycle ergometer.
The selectivity of the impact of loads can be convincingly demonstrated by the results of an experiment in which the subjects performed prolonged aerobic work on a bicycle ergometer while working with one leg for 6 weeks (Nepkinsson, 1992). After the end of the training, using arterial and venous catheterization and muscle biopsy, the energy metabolism was studied when performing a bicycle ergometric load with an intensity of 70% V0 2 max . In the trained leg, compared to the untrained leg, there was significantly less lactate release, as well as a significantly higher percentage of energy production from fat burning. These data should be taken into account when trying to use the effect of cross-adaptation in the preparation of qualified athletes.
In the literature, the practical aspect of the phenomenon of cross-adaptation associated with the transfer of adaptive reactions acquired as a result of the action of some stimuli on the action of others is widely covered. Adaptation to muscle activity may be accompanied by the development of adaptation to other stimuli, such as hypoxia, cooling, overheating, etc. (Rusin, 1984).
Cross-adaptation is based on the common requirements imposed on the body by various stimuli. In particular, adaptation to hypoxia is, first of all, a “struggle for oxygen” and its more efficient use, and adaptation to increased muscle activity also leads to an increase in the possibilities of oxygen transport and oxidative mechanisms. This applies not only to respiratory, but also to anaerobic ATP resynthesis. With adaptation to cold during muscle activity, the potential for aerobic and glycolytic oxidation of carbohydrates, as well as lipid metabolism and fatty acid oxidation, increases. When adapting to overheating, what is achieved with systematic muscle activity an increase in the ability of mitochondria both to greater degrees of uncoupling of respiration and phosphorylation, and to greater degrees of their conjugation (Yakovlev, 1974).
Cross adaptation phenomena that play a role for individuals who exercise to improve health and improve physical fitness, cannot be considered as a serious factor that ensures the growth of fitness among qualified athletes. Even in untrained individuals, the increase physical qualities, for example, strength, as a result of cross-adaptation, is clearly insignificant compared to the level of adaptive rearrangements due to direct training.
On the limited possibilities of the phenomenon of cross-adaptation in relation to the tasks of sports highest achievements many other experimental data also testify.
Studies in which single leg training has been carried out have shown that local adaptation occurs only at the level of the leg being trained. Two groups of subjects trained on a bicycle ergometer for 4 weeks, 4–5 sessions each, doing work with one leg. The training of the subjects was aimed at developing aerobic endurance. As a result of training, V0 2 max increased in the subjects of both groups, heart rate decreased, and a lower lactate level was noted with a standard submaximal load. These changes were more pronounced in individuals trained for endurance. At the same time, the activity of succinate dehydrogenase and the efficiency of glycogen consumption increased significantly in the persons belonging to the second group, in comparison with the subjects of the first group. All these positive changes affected mainly the trained leg. In particular, lactate release during submaximal intensity work was noted only in the untrained leg. The differences were explained by the authors primarily by an increase in the activity of aerobic enzymes and an improvement in the capillarization of training muscles.
The specificity of adaptation to specific physical activity is determined to a greater extent by the characteristics of the contractile activity of the muscles than by external stimuli, in particular, changes in the hormonal environment. This is evident from the fact that mitochondrial adaptation is limited to the muscle fibers involved in contraction. For example, in runners and cyclists, the increase in mitochondrial content is limited to muscles. lower extremities; if one limb is trained, adaptation is limited only by its limits (Wilmore and Costill, 2004). It has also been shown that adaptive changes in mitochondrial content can be induced by exercise despite the absence of thyroid or pituitary hormones (Holloszy and Coyle, 1984).
The specificity of adaptation is manifested in relation to various physical qualities. This is evidenced by the data, according to which dexterity mainly increases in relation to the indicators of the hand that was subjected to special training (Fig. 10). It's interesting that maximum effect observed only with a certain amount of work, the excess of which adversely affects the course of adaptive reactions. Similar conclusions were made by V.I. Lyakh (1989), who studied the structure and interconnection of different types of human coordination abilities and showed their relative independence from each other.
Rice. Fig. 10. Increase in dexterity of the trained (7) and non-trained (2) hands as a result of a six-week training, depending on the amount of work performed (Hettinger, Hollmann, 1964)
Rice. 11. Volume content of mitochondria in three types of muscle fibers in a non-athlete (I), student sports university(II) and endurance trained athlete (III) (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980)
The specificity of the effect of training on endurance in connection with the involvement of fibers of various types and their adaptive reserves in terms of an increase in the volume content of mitochondria is manifested in the following: in BSP fibers, the volume content of mitochondria is almost the same in untrained and endurance-trained individuals. In BSA fibers, especially in MS fibers, of trained individuals, the volume content of mitochondria significantly exceeds those of individuals not trained for endurance (Fig. 11.).
Thus, when preparing high-class athletes, one should focus on the means and methods that ensure the adequacy of training effects on shifts in the activity of functional systems,
dynamic and kinematic structure of movements, features of mental processes during effective competitive activity.
6. Impact of loads on the body of athletes of various qualifications and preparedness
Urgent and long-term adaptation of athletes significantly changes under the influence of their skill level, preparedness and functional state. At the same time, the same work in terms of volume and intensity causes a different reaction. If the reaction to standard work among masters of sports is not significantly expressed - fatigue or shifts in the activity of the functional systems bearing the main load are small, recovery proceeds quickly, then in less qualified athletes the same work causes a much more violent reaction: the lower the qualification of the athlete, the more the degree of fatigue and shifts in the state of functional systems that are most actively involved in ensuring work is expressed, the recovery period is longer (Fig. 12.). At extreme loads, qualified athletes have more pronounced reactions.
At extreme loads in a trained person, oxygen consumption can exceed 6 l-min -1, cardiac output - 44--47 l-min "1, systolic blood volume - 200-220 ml, i.e., 1.5 - 2 times higher than in untrained individuals.Trained people show a much more pronounced reaction of the sympathetic-adrenal system compared to untrained people.All this provides a person adapted to physical exertion with greater efficiency, manifested in an increase in the intensity and duration of work.
In athletes trained for strenuous work of an aerobic nature, there is a significant increase in muscle vascularization due to an increase in the number of capillaries in muscle tissue and the opening of potential collateral vessels, which leads to an increase in blood flow during strenuous work. At the same time, under standard loads in trained individuals, compared with untrained individuals, there is a smaller decrease in blood flow to non-working muscles, the liver, and others. internal organs. This is due to the improvement of the central mechanisms of differentiated regulation of blood flow, an increase in the vascularization of muscle fibers, and an increase in the ability of muscle tissue to utilize oxygen from the blood. At the same time, under standard loads in trained individuals, compared with untrained individuals, there is a smaller decrease in blood flow to non-working muscles, liver and other internal organs. This is due to the improvement of the central mechanisms of differentiated regulation of blood flow, an increase in the vascularization of muscle fibers, and an increase in the ability of muscle tissue to utilize oxygen from the blood.
Rice. 12. The reaction of the body of athletes of low (7), medium (2) and high qualifications (3) to work, the same in volume and intensity
Rice. 13. The reaction of the organism of athletes of high (1) and low (2) qualifications to the maximum load
In high-class athletes, with a more pronounced reaction to the ultimate load, the recovery processes after it proceed more intensively. If the recovery of working capacity after training sessions with heavy loads of a mixed aerobic-anaerobic nature for athletes of low qualification can take up to 3-4 days, then for masters of sports the recovery period is 2 times shorter. And this is provided that their total training volume is much higher compared to athletes of low qualification (Fig. 13.). It is also important that in highly qualified athletes, large shifts in the activity of the autonomic nervous system at maximum load are accompanied by more productive work, which is manifested in its efficiency, the effectiveness of intermuscular and intramuscular coordination. This effect is noted even in cases where the differences in the qualifications of athletes are not very large.
Standard and ultimate loads cause unequal in magnitude and nature of the reaction to various stages training macrocycle, as well as if they are planned for a non-recovered level of the body's functional capabilities after previous loads. So, at the beginning of the first stage of the preparatory period, the reaction of the athlete's body to standard specific loads is expressed to a greater extent compared to the indicators recorded at the second stage of the preparatory and competitive periods. Consequently, the increase in special fitness leads to a significant economization of functions when performing standard work. Limit loads, on the contrary, are associated with more pronounced reactions as the fitness of athletes increases.
Figure 14. The reaction of the functional systems of the body of cyclists at the beginning and end of the race (Mikhailov, 1971)
The performance of the same work in different functional states leads to different reactions from the functional systems of the body. An example is the results of studies obtained when simulating the conditions of a team pursuit race on a track: the performance of work of the same power and duration under conditions of fatigue leads to a sharp increase in shifts in the activity of functional systems (Fig. 14). The functional state of athletes should be especially strictly controlled when planning work aimed at increasing speed and coordination abilities. Work aimed at improving these qualities should be carried out only with the full restoration of the functional capabilities of the body, which determine the level of manifestation of these qualities. In the event that speed loads or loads aimed at increasing coordination abilities are performed with reduced functionality in relation to the maximum manifestation of these qualities, effective adaptation does not occur. Moreover, relatively rigid motor stereotypes can form, which limit the growth of speed and coordination abilities (Platonov, 1984).
Loads specific to modern sports, lead to exceptionally high sports results, rapidly proceeding and reaching hard-to-predict values of long-term adaptation. Unfortunately, these loads are often also the cause of the inhibition of adaptive capabilities, the cessation of the growth of results, the reduction in the duration of an athlete's performance at the level of the highest achievements, the appearance of prepathological and pathological changes in the body (Fig. 15).
Effective adaptation of the body of athletes to loads is noted in the second and first parts of the third zones of interaction between the stimulus and the reaction of the body. At the border of the third and fourth zones, the growth of functions slows down with the inclusion of compensatory protective mechanisms. The transition to the fourth zone leads to a regular decrease in the functional capabilities of athletes and the emergence of overtraining syndrome (Shirkovets, Shustin, 1999).
Rice. 15. Scheme of the dynamics of the interaction of training loads and the functional potential of the body of athletes in different zones (Shirkovets, Shustin, 1999)
At the beginning of a targeted training, the adaptation process proceeds intensively. In the future, as the level of development of motor qualities and the capabilities of various organs and systems increase, the rate of formation of long-term adaptive reactions slows down significantly. This pattern manifests itself at individual stages of training within the training macrocycle and during many years of training.
The expansion of the zone of the functional reserve of organs and systems of the body in qualified and trained athletes is associated with a narrowing of the zone that stimulates further adaptation: the higher the athlete's qualification, the narrower the range of functional activity that can stimulate further adaptive processes (Fig. 16). In the early stages of years of training -- initial training, preliminary basic training- it is necessary to use as widely as possible the means located in the lower half of the zone that stimulates long-term adaptation. This is the key to expanding this zone at subsequent stages. The widespread use at the early stages of long-term training of the means located in the upper half of the zone can drastically reduce it at subsequent stages and thus minimize the arsenal of methods and means that can stimulate long-term adaptation at the final, most critical stages of long-term training.
Rice. 16. Correlation between the zone of functional reserve (1) and the zone that stimulates further adaptation (2): a - in people who do not go in for sports; b - for athletes of average qualification; s -- in international class athletes (Platonov, 1997)
7. Reactions of the athlete's body to competitive loads
Modern competitive activity of high-class athletes is exceptionally intense; track cyclists - 160 times or more, road cyclists plan up to 100-150 or more competitive days during the year, etc. Such a high volume of competitive activity is due not only to the need to successfully perform in various competitions, but also to use them as the most powerful means of stimulating adaptive reactions and integral training, which makes it possible to combine the entire complex of technical-tactical, functional, physical and mental prerequisites, qualities and abilities into a single system aimed at achieving the planned result. Even with optimal planning of training loads that simulate competitive ones, and with the appropriate motivation of an athlete for their effective implementation, the level of functional activity of regulatory and executive bodies is significantly lower than in competitions. Only in the process of competition can an athlete reach the level of ultimate functional manifestations and perform such work, which during training sessions turns out to be unbearable. As an example, we present data obtained from highly qualified athletes performing a single load (Fig. 17).
Rice. 17. The reaction of the organism of a highly qualified cyclist (individual pursuit for 4 km on the track) to the load: 1 - bicycle ergometric step; 2 - control competitions; 3 - the main competitions of the season; a - heart rate, bpm "1; b - lactate, mmol-l"
Creation of a microclimate of competitions when performing complexes training exercises and training programs contributes to the increase in the performance of athletes and a deeper mobilization of the functional reserves of their body.
The fact that competition conditions contribute to a more complete use of the body's functional reserves compared to training conditions is evidenced by many studies. During control training, the accumulation of lactate in the muscles occurs much less than when passing the same distances in competition conditions.
Competitive loads in cycling (long road races) can lead to significant pathological disorders in the muscles that carry the main load, which is usually not observed in the training process.
In the muscles that carry the main load, damage to the contractile apparatus (damage to 2-discs, lysismiofibrils, contractures), mitochondria (swelling, crystalline inclusions) was revealed, ruptures of the sarcolemma, cell necrosis and inflammation, etc. These traumatic signs disappear no earlier than after 10 days after the competition. Studies have shown that during repeated testing under normal conditions, force fluctuations during repeated measurements usually do not exceed 3--4%. If repeated measurements are performed in competitive conditions or with appropriate motivation, the increase in strength can be 10--15% (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980), in some cases - 20% or more. These data require a change in the still existing ideas about competitions as a simple implementation of what is laid down in the training process. These notions are obviously wrong, because highest achievements athletes show in major competitions. At the same time, the higher the rank of the competitions, the competition in them, the attention to the competitions from the fans, the press, the higher are the sports results. This is despite the fact that in the conditions of control competitions it is possible to avoid many factors that seem to interfere with effective competitive activity. However, in minor competitions, one of the decisive factors that determines the level of results in the sport of the highest achievements is missing - the ultimate mobilization of mental capabilities. It is well known that the results of any activity of an athlete, especially those associated with extreme situations, depend not only on the perfection of his skills and abilities, the level of development of physical qualities, but also on his character, strength of aspirations, determination of actions, mobilization of will. At the same time, the higher the class of an athlete, the greater the role for achieving high sports results is played by his mental abilities, which can significantly affect the level of functional manifestations (Tseng, Pakhomov, 1985).
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The principle of the response of a living system. The human body as a functional system. The concept of adaptation of the athlete's body, homeostasis of the internal environment. The automatism of the body systems. Morphological manifestations of compensatory-adaptive reactions.
abstract, added 11/24/2009
Physical load as the magnitude of the impact of physical exercise on a person. Intensity, duration and frequency as components of the volume of the training load. Major signs of fatigue Types of rest intervals. Lesson building options.
term paper, added 12/23/2014
Arterial pressure and heart rate as the most important integral indicators of the functional state of the body. Functional shifts under constant power loads. Evaluation of the effect of physical activity on hemodynamic constants.
term paper, added 09/11/2012
The dynamics of the functions of the athlete's body during adaptation and its main stages. Physiological basis adaptation of the athlete's body to physical activity. The stage of physiological stress of the body. Adaptive changes in body systems.
test, added 12/24/2013
Training and competitive loads and recovery. Athlete's diet. Pharmacological means of preventing overwork and restoring sports performance. Drugs that affect energy and metabolic processes.
thesis, added 05/25/2015
The concept of adaptation in sports activities. Features and manifestations of adaptation during intense physical activity. Biochemical mechanisms of adaptation to muscle work. Adaptation of the body to factors that cause intense muscle work.
term paper, added 03/31/2015
Physical load and its significance in the training process. The effectiveness of physical activity. The choice of optimal loads, their types. Intensity of loads and methods for their determination. Load example for self-study on the development of the quality of strength.
abstract, added 12/12/2007
Consideration of the theory of adaptation as a body of knowledge about the adaptation of the human body to environmental conditions. Manifestations of adaptation to physical activity in sports. Reactions of adaptation during muscular activity. functionality of the body.
