Adaptive changes - training effect.
Training - physical activity causes an adaptive response of the body, which manifests itself as biochemical changes in the composition of the internal environment - metabolic changes. The magnitude and direction of adaptive biochemical changes or the degree of impact of physical activity on the body depend on the type, nature, mode of physical activity - sports exercises. Adaptive changes in metabolism arising under the influence of training are expressed in a change in the metabolic states of the body and determine the training effect. Biological science and sports theory consider sports training as a process of directed adaptation of the body to the effects of physical activity.
The nature of the body's adaptation to exposure physical activity is defined as phase (which can be directly seen from the supercompensation graph). Adaptive changes in the body and in metabolism differ in the time of implementation, respectively, there are two stages of adaptation: urgent and long-term (chronic) adaptation.
Urgent adaptation is the body's response to a single impact of physical activity, it is based on the body's inherent (and therefore evolutionarily appropriated) biochemical mechanisms for changing energy metabolism and vegetative maintenance functions. The stage of urgent adaptation is accompanied by an increase in the processes leading to the synthesis of ATP and the restoration of the disturbed balance of macroergic compounds.
Long-term adaptation develops (of course, for a long time) as a cumulative effect from the repeated implementation of segments of urgent adaptation and is characterized by the appearance of significant structural and functional changes in the body - a stable adaptive effect. The repeatedly repeated factor of physical activity in the process of long-term adaptation activates the synthesis of proteins that form the contractile structures of muscles, selects and consolidates more effective energy supply mechanisms.
The phase nature of the process of adaptation to physical loads allows us to distinguish three types of training effect: urgent, delayed (prolonged) and cumulative (accumulative). The urgent training effect is manifested by biochemical changes in the body that occur directly during the action of physical activity and during the period of urgent recovery (within the next 0.5 - 1 hour after the end of the load). It is associated with the elimination of oxygen debt formed during work and fast recovery reactions. The delayed training effect is observed at a later date than the urgent one, and it is characterized by the processes of restoring the energy "depots" of the body, accelerated synthesis of destroyed and new cellular compounds. The cumulative training effect is already considered as the accumulation of traces of multiple urgent and delayed effects - the result of their sequential summation. The cumulative training effect is formed by complex biochemical changes that occur over a long period of training. The growth of the training effect is expressed in the growth of performance indicators, improvement of sports results.
Biological principles sports training.
The theory of sports and sports biochemistry studied and formulated the main patterns of development of adaptation to the effects of physical activity during training. For the practice of sports, these patterns are formulated as the biological principles of sports training. The following six principles are of greatest importance:
the principle of overeating,
principle of specificity
reversibility principle,
the principle of positive interaction,
the principle of consistent adaptation,
the principle of cyclicity.
The increased intensity of functioning (hyperfunction) of leading systems or organs under load creates an incentive to enhance the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins that form these organs and systems, and leads to the development of the necessary structural and functional rearrangements in the body. The amount of physical activity that causes adaptation does not remain constant, it increases markedly during training. Therefore, in order to provide the necessary stimulus for continuous improvement in performance, the amount of load applied must be gradually increased along with the growth of the athlete's fitness.
The principle of overdose and the dependence "Dose-effect".
The principle of over-housing reflects the following pattern of biological adaptation: pronounced adaptationssignificant changes in the body can only be achieved whenused in the process of training physicalloads sufficiently burden the trained function andthereby stimulating its development.
= A pronounced increase in the training effect is provided only by progressive (increasing) loads. The increase in the training effect of overeating is reflected by the dose-effect relationship.
The development of a trained function is not stimulated by any physical activity. Small in size - ineffective - not sufficient to cause adaptive changes in the body. A pronounced increase in the trained function is achieved when exposed to a load that exceeds a certain threshold value, in excess of the value to which adaptation has already been developed. This dependence is explained by the different reactions of the body systems to a specific type of impact: the systems that provide intracellular energy metabolism and vegetative support of functions respond proportionally to the strength of the action, while the hormonal, sympathetic-adrenal and pituitary-andrenocortical systems give a non-specific response. This non-specific response is called the stress syndrome, since it is a response to a strong stimulus (stressor, stress factor) that exceeds a certain threshold level. In the process of training, not only physical activity can act as a stressor, but also other external factors: bioclimatic, pharmacological, psychogenic, social, etc.
Physical load, increasing to a stress level, provides an active adaptive response of the body, leading to an increase in the trained function. The range in which an increase in physical activity is accompanied by a proportional increase in the trained function is called the range effective loads, since here the training effect is predictable. Of course, a linear relationship - a continuous increase in the trained function with an increase in the volume of performed loads, is not unlimited. With regard to a particular function or organ, and, of course, the organism, there is an individual limit to adaptation. The rate of growth of the trained function gradually slows down as it approaches the limit value of the load and, when it is reached, becomes zero. Extreme load (exceeding the limit level) causes a paradoxical or reverse reaction. This phenomenon is called adaptation failure (or overtraining). In practice, limit loads are still used: in competitions, in control and special trainings, but their frequent use leads to exhaustion of the body as a whole and, especially, of the systems responsible for adaptation. To the greatest extent, individual tolerance to extreme loads is determined by the adaptive reserve of the sympathetic-adrenal and pituitary-adrenocortical systems.
The graph of the "dose - effect" dependence is represented by a curve, Fig. 10, which is conditionally divided into parts.
Rice. 10. Dependence "Dose-effect".
The interval of inefficient loads is followed by the initial stage of development of adaptation - the exponential curve is close to a straight line. At this interval of training, the limits of adaptation have not yet been reached - you can increase the load and the amount of work performed - this is the range of effective loads. When the value of the training load approaches the limit, the dose-effect relationship becomes exponential with saturation. At this stage, the risk of overvoltage and failure of adaptation increases. In the range of ultimate loads of the "dose-effect" dependence at the "peak" of the parabolic curve, the increase in the trained function stops. If the load continues to increase to the limit, there is an exponential decrease in the training effect.
It is possible to prevent a decrease in the rate of development of adaptation (not permanently, but only to “raise the ceiling”), for example, by changing the magnitude and nature of the training load or by using additional factors in training that stimulate adaptive shifts in the body. An example is the training of sprinters. The use of special nutritional preparations that have a stimulating effect on anabolic processes in working muscles significantly increases the training effect and allows you to show better results with less training work.
The principle of specificity.
According to the principle of specificity under the influence of training, the most pronouncedadaptive changes occur inthose organs, tissues, functional systems that are affected by the main physical load.
= The trained system specifically adapts (- hypertrophies). Depending on the type and magnitude of the load, the dominant system is formed in the body, it is the most loaded, and, accordingly, provided in the process of plastic and energy metabolism. Excessive in its tension training at a certain point in time can cause the depletion of the functional reserves of the dominant system and weaken the functioning of other systems - overtraining. To avoid this condition, it is necessary to regularly shift the load of the dominant and “pull up” the non-dominant support systems of this sport to the required level of fitness.
The specificity of adaptive changes in the body caused by training is manifested both in the urgent and cumulative training effect. Biochemical changes in the body at the micro and macro levels also reflect the specificity of adaptation. Under the influence of the applied means and methods of training a particular (specific) sport, those functional properties and qualities of the body are mainly developed that are necessary to achieve the best results in it. For example, sprinters have a large capacity of the alactic anaerobic system (ATP + CrF) and a high glycolytic anaerobic capacity (this is the ability to resist the accumulation of maximum amounts of lactic acid). At the same time, long-distance runners - stayers have high rates of aerobic power and aerobic efficiency and moderate load produce less lactic acid (than sprinters).
(3) Reversibility of the action of adaptation.
It follows from the reversibility principle that adaptationchanges in the body caused by exercise disappear over time.
= Without training, adaptive changes turn to zero. . After the termination of the load or during a break in training, positive structural and functional changes in the dominant system gradually decrease until they disappear altogether.
This principle is most clearly manifested in the delayed training effect observed after the end of the physical load. For example, the changes caused by it in the sphere of energy metabolism quickly return to the initial level and at a certain moment exceed it (supercompensation phase). Upon completion of the supercompensation phase, the indicators of energy metabolism, experiencing periodic fluctuations, gradually return to normal. Based on this pattern of recovery processes, it was shown that for the development of adaptation during training, repeated loads should be set in the supercompensation phase. The principle of action reversibility is fully applicable to the case of cumulative training effects. High performance achieved during a long period of training decreases after its termination or a decrease in its intensity.
(4) Positive interaction of training effects.
The principle of positive interaction reflects the fact that the cumulative effect that occurs after repeated repetition of the load is not a simple addition of a certain number of urgent and delayed training effects. Each subsequent load has a certain effect on the adaptive effect of the previous load and can modify it. If the result of such a summation of training effects from sequentially performed loads leads to an increase in adaptive changes in the body, then there is a positive interaction; if each subsequent load reduces the effect of the previous one, the interaction is considered negative; if the subsequent load does not noticeably affect the training effect of the previous load, there is a neutral interaction . Effective adaptation over a long period of training can only be achieved with a positive interaction between the individual loads. The training effect of physical activity can also be influenced by other non-specific training factors: nutrition, the use of physiotherapeutic and pharmacological methods, bioclimatic factors, etc. The use of additional factors in order to enhance adaptation to physical activity can only be successful if specific effects of these factors will positively interact with the training effects of loads.
(5) The sequence of adaptive changes.
The principle of sequential adaptation follows from the well-studied facts of heterochronism (time difference) of biochemical changes in the body that occur during training. So, with an urgent training effect after a single action of physical activity, adaptive changes in the field of energy metabolism are found primarily in the alactic anaerobic system, then in anaerobic glycolysis, and the slowest reaction is observed in the processes of mitochoid respiration and oxidative phosphorylation. During the recovery period after the end of the action of physical activity, supercompensation of the content of CrF in the muscles is quickly achieved, then glycogen and, finally, lipids and proteins that form subcellular structures. In the process of long-term adaptation, the indicators of the power of energy processes change first, then the energy capacity, and only at the final stage of adaptation - the indicators of energy efficiency.
(6) Cyclic development of adaptation. Periodization of training.
The principle of cyclicity states that adaptive changes in the body during training are of a phase nature and these fluctuations in the rate of development of adaptation on the part of the leading functions have different amplitudes and wavelengths. To create the necessary stimulus for the development of adaptation, the training effects of several loads (or training sessions) must be summed up according to certain rules and represent some complete cycle of influences on the leading functions. For complete adaptation to such a cycle of training influences, it should be repeated many times during a certain period of training, in which a certain task of training an athlete is solved. From such training cycles, which sequentially replace each other from stage to stage in accordance with the natural development of adaptation, larger cycles are formed in separate functions that separate the moments of participation of athletes in the most important competitions of the season.
And that's not all either. On the topic of lecture No. 7, in laboratory, practical classes, students study in detail and with examples in specific sports:
1. Principles of specificity, reversibility, positive interaction of training effects.
2. Patterns of sequence and cyclicality of adaptive changes.
3. Techniques and methods of potentiation, periodization and optimization of the training process.
Mikhailov S. S. Sports biochemistry. Textbook for universities and colleges of physics. cult. - M: Publishing house Soviet sport, 2004, 220 p.
Biochemistry muscle activity: textbook for IFC / N. I. Volkov [and others]. - Kyiv: Olympic Literature, 2000. - 502 p.
Biochemistry: Proc. For in-t nat. cult. / Ed. V. V. Menshikov, N. I. Volkova. - M .: Physical culture and sport, 1986. - 384 p., ill.
Matveev L.P. Fundamentals of sports training: Textbook. settlement for IFKs. - M.: FiS, 1977.
Biochemistry: textbook for IFC / ed. N.N. Yakovleva. - M .: Physical culture and sport, 1974. - S. 231-243.
List of articles to study on lecture topics:
Zhelyazkov T. O. On the essence of sports form.// Theory and practice physical education, 1997, № 7.
Solodkov A.S. Adaptation in sports: theoretical and applied aspects. M. “Theor. and pract. physical cult." 1990. - No. 5. - P.3-5.
V. Poptsov. Some aspects of sports physiology in relation to endurance sports. Magazine "" Ski race"" (№ 1 (7) 1998.
Sergeev Yu.P. On some theoretical developments and experience of introducing the achievements of biological science into sports practice // Nauchn.-sport. Vestn., 1980, No. 5, p. 14-19.
Matveev L.P. To the theory of construction of sports training //Teor. and pract. physical cult., 1991, No. 12, p. 11-12.
Verkhoshansky Yu. V. Actual problems of modern theory and methods of sports training //Theor. and pract. physical cult., 1993, No. 8, p. 21-28.
Matveev L.P. Notes on some innovations in the views on the theory of sports training //Theor. and pract. physical cult., 1995, No. 12, p. 49-52.
Matveev L.P., Meyerson F.Z. Principles of the theory of training and modern provisions of the theory of adaptation to physical loads // Essays on the theory of physical culture. - M.: FiS, 1984, p. 224-240.
Meyerson F.Z., Pshennikova M.G. Adaptation to stressful situations and physical activity. - M.: Medicine, 1988.
It is also recommended to use the "Internet" and read the articles published in the journal "Theory and Practice of Physical Culture" and in its electronic version on the website http://www.infosport.ru/press/tpfk/
S. E. Pavlov. Fundamentals of the theory of adaptation and sports training. M. “Theor. and pract. physical cult." 1999, no. 1, p. 12-17.
http://www.infosport.ru/press/tpfk/1999N1/p12-17.htm
2. L. P. Matveev. To the discussion about the theory of sports training. M. " Theor. and pract. physical cult.» 1998, No. 7, p. 55-61.
http:// lib. sportedu. en/ Press/ tpfk/1998 n7/ p55-61
http://lib.sportedu.ru/Press/TPFK/1999№1/p2-11.htm
4. S. E. Pavlov M.V. Pavlova T.N. Kuznetsova. Sports recovery. Theoretical and practical aspects. M. " Theor. and pract. physical cult.» 2000, No. 1, p. 23-26.
http:// lib. sportedu. en/ Press/ TPFK/2000 n1/ p23-26. htm
Technique of mental chronomeiria - class psychological methods, designed to establish the time of the course of mental processes on the basis of recording the time spent by the subject on the answer, for example, the time of the motor reaction when solving various cognitive tasks. The time for performing simple mental operations is determined by the subtraction method: from the reaction time in a task where the desired operation is involved, the reaction time is subtracted in a similar task where it is not needed. .
Quillian, experiment: subjects were asked to evaluate the truth of statements such as "canaries can sing", "canaries have feathers", "canaries have skin". The reaction time was measured. Result: the time spent on evaluating the truth of the first statement (1310 ms) was less than that spent on evaluating the second one (1380 ms), which, in turn, was less than that on evaluating the third one (1470 ms).
24 .Heuristic potential of functioning of semantic memory. The principle of property inheritance.
Semantic memory is a type of memory that reflects generalized knowledge about the world. Semantic memory was first described by Michael Ross Quillian in 1970. He proposed a network model that explains how information representing knowledge about the world is organized and retrieved in memory.
Quillian suggested that information in semantic memory is stored in hierarchically organized network structures that consist of nodes and relationships between them. Principle of property inheritance: each node has a set of properties that is true for itself and all categories of the lower level. Proof: The Cognitive Economy Hypothesis. It is assumed that if you ask a question about an object, then the time to answer the question will depend on the distance traveled over the network. This proves that semantic memory exists in the form of a network. Quillian, experiment: subjects were asked to evaluate the truth of statements such as "canaries can sing", "canaries have feathers", "canaries have skin". The reaction time was measured. Result: the time spent on evaluating the truth of the first statement (1310 ms) was less than that spent on evaluating the second one (1380 ms), which, in turn, was less than that on evaluating the third one (1470 ms).
Eleanor Roche supplemented the Quillian model by introducing the concept of the degree of categorical membership - the degree to which an object is a typical representative of its category. The time spent identifying more typical representatives was less than that spent identifying less typical representatives. Conrad found that the empirical significance of a property is also important. Object coding is activity related. Subjects spent less time evaluating the falsity or truth of a statement such as "apples are edible" than one such as "apples have dark pits." The fact that apples can be eaten is more important to us, although formally the first property is further from the “apples” node than the second.
Spreading activation model, J. Loftus, Collins: distances between objects indicate the degree of their semantic connectedness (it does not matter for what reason, logical or empirical, it has developed). The excitation caused by the activation of one of the units spreads through the network, increasing the availability of the elements associated with it. The activation level decreases as the distance between units increases and over time.
25 .The principle of specificity of coding in episodic memory. Examples of experimental studies.
Episodic memory (E. Tulving) is a type of memory that stores episodes of the past. This is an evolutionarily late, easily vulnerable memory system focused on the past. Information is fixed in it directly, the order of events in memory corresponds to chronological order fixation in memory. In episodic memory, information does not change, is not generalized, and does not develop. The time factor plays a big role, temporal interference can disrupt access to information. Access to episodic memory changes its content (the fact of access is recorded in the memory itself).
The principle of coding specificity lies in the fact that the availability of information is determined by the coincidence of the key elements of the situation of memorization and retrieval. The key elements can be the state (drunk - sober), the place (under water - on land), the surrounding background (Mozart - jazz - silence), smells (the smell of chocolate), etc. The principle of coding specificity is valid even when the key element is not recognized (for example, smell). The result of the discrepancy between the encoding situation and the reproduction situation becomes the phenomenon of situational forgetting (memory is not available due to the mismatch of key features during encoding and reproduction). At the same time, the principle of specificity presupposes the passivity of the subject. But there is a combined interpretation - the principle of active specificity. Then the information that corresponds to the unfolding activity is stably remembered, and in a different situation, the “gaps” are filled based on the requirements of the new task.
J. Eitch's experiment: subjects memorized a series of words after taking a certain dose of alcohol. The playback result was better after taking the same dose of alcohol. D. Godden and A. Baddeley: similar results for scuba divers who memorized and recalled lists of words underwater and on land. Episodic memory is divided into retrospective and prospective memory. Retrospective stores memories of the past, and prospective stores memories of the future (holding intentions). The success of recalling information from each system almost does not correlate, so prospective memory is recognized as relatively independent. The effectiveness of prospective memory is influenced by many factors: the importance and complexity of the task, the time for which the action is delayed, what this time is filled with, etc. If the intention is important, then it remains regardless of what the person was doing in the intermediate activity. If the intention is unimportant, then it is better to remember it if the intermediate activity was simple and boring.
Violations in the area of the brain responsible for this lead to a “field effect”, when a person’s behavior is completely determined by the current situation (enters the door because it is open, draws because he sees pencils, etc.).
Or see question 28 from block A
26. Individual differences in the organization of semantic memory. Empirical "cartography" of Moara.
People differ significantly from each other in terms of the structure of semantic memory, as has been experimentally confirmed. J. Moar asked the subjects, some of whom were residents of Cambridge (England), some residents of Glasgow (Scotland), to draw lines reflecting the relationship between the pairs of cities London - Edinburgh, Edinburgh - Birmingham, Birmingham - London and London - Newcastle. Then, with the help of a computer, "maps" were created on the basis of the received estimates. It is easy to see that the subjects from Glasgow disproportionately exaggerated the size of their Scotland, when the inhabitants of Cambridge perceived it as a small patch of land, and England seemed huge to the Cambridgeians when the Scots greatly underestimated its size.
The results of the conducted research complicate the initial idea of semantic networks, each node corresponds to a certain set of properties that characterize concepts (sub-repositories). The composition of substores is determined by 1) logical relationships between objects; 2) the degree of categorical membership of the object; 3) the empirical significance of a particular property in application to a given object; 4) implicit, often unconscious parameters of the categorization of world objects. Variants of such sub-repositories can be scientific concepts, worldly, images, schemes, scenarios (fixed sequences of actions).
27 .The effect of the universal "peak" of autobiographical memories.
The effect of the "peak" of memories, D. Rubin, S. Wetzler, R. Nebis: people remember a disproportionately high number of autobiographical events related to the period of 16-26 years. The subjects had to remember as much as possible in response to the keywords. Average age respondents are 70 years old. The effect of peak memory (a kind of thickening of memories) was observed in the period between 15 and 30 years.
The distribution of the number of memories:
1) A lot of memories of events that happened a few years before the survey (this reflects the operational component of autobiographical memory).
2) Low number of memories of early childhood(a consequence of childhood amnesia - people have only fragmentary memories of events up to three years).
3) Peak memories at 15 - 30 years.
When people were asked to remember the most vivid and significant events, the effect of the operational component was erased, and the percentage of memories related to the “peak” period increased from 17% to 57%.
It also turned out, for example, that books, music and films dating from 15 to 30 years are rated as the most enjoyable and the most impressive.
adults remember large quantity events related to their youth.
Interpretation of the "peak" memory phenomenon:
1) The result of the appropriation of cultural life scenarios: the typical content of life events, which is shared by all members of the cultural community.
Research by D. Ruben, D. Berntsen: the subjects had to indicate the seven most probable events in a person's life, date, evaluate subjective importance and probability.
It was found:
– cultural scenarios do exist and are shared by the majority of members of society; the most frequently indicated accounted for 90% of those indicated in general.
- cultural scenarios include mainly socially desirable, positive events.
- the dates of the events included in the cultural scenarios form a “peak” effect: 6 out of the 7 most frequently mentioned are between the ages of 16-30.
The “peak” effect is observed only for positive events. The “peak” effect is the implementation of a mechanism for structuring incoming autobiographical information in accordance with cultural scenarios.
2) The product of personality formation: autobiographical memory is one of the main resources for the formation and maintenance of personality, so we can assume the existence of a special mechanism that maintains a high density of memories associated with youth, from the moment of acquiring the first independent identity.
M. Sham (researcher of calendar peaks in autobiographical memory): connects the “peak” of memories with the period of the first experiences, which are imprinted due to their novelty and emotional richness. These moments are further used as "memory reference points". There are moments of the so-called "interrupted identity" (reassessment, redefinition of one's personality) - memories of turning points. They provide a person with the opportunity to reflect on the path of development, the formation of his personality, to break it into meaningful stages. The concentration of important events around turning points allows you to remember as much as possible about those periods of life. Usually, the events preceding the turning point portend major changes in the future.
- anticipation of a turning point should stimulate the imprinting of events - predecessors;
- the turning point is often unexpected, therefore, initially perceived as not very important, later secondary significance is attributed.
The high saturation of the memories of the period that follows after the turning point indicates that a person perceives more and more sharply after the turning point - the effect of the trail. Research by V.V. Nurkova: 40 subjects, they had to state their autobiography, and then mark the turning points. The most accessible memories accumulated around the turning points, the increase in the availability of these periods is described by a power function. The effect of the "peak" of memories is not only an age-related universal phenomenon, the factor of the individual configuration of events experienced as a turning point is also important.
These principles apply not only strength training, but in general any training associated with the development of certain physical characteristics based on a personal approach to the student.
System physical training, like any system must obey certain general principles. These principles should be consistent with the training process as a whole, regardless of the methods and programs used, so that the goals and objectives that are set for those involved are maximally realized. It would be incorrect to argue about the advantages of a particular technique or a particular training program. The effectiveness of the training process primarily depends on how conscientiously the principles of training are followed.
🔆1. The principle of supercompensation.
This principle reflects such a fundamental phenomenon for all biological beings that ensures survival and evolution as adaptation. This is a phenomenon that manifests itself some time after training, which is characterized by an increase in the indicators of the trained function relative to the initial values. It lies in the fact that the level of those functions or resources that have been affected as a result of a specific specific load increases during the recovery period after it. place summation and consolidation of individual adaptive effects.
As it turned out, the time after training can be divided into three phases:
1st phase or recovery phase. During this time period, muscle tissue is restored, and with it, the trained function itself is restored to its previous levels.
2nd phase - supercompensation. This phase is characterized by increased performance, during which the indicators of the trained function can be 10–20% higher than the initial level.
3rd phase - lost compensation. The trained indicator smoothly returns to the initial values.
Regular physical activity for a long time leads to an increase in training parameters and an increase in muscle mass. This fact enables a person to develop and improve his body.
For achievement good results in bodybuilding, each workout should be in the supercompensation phase caused by the previous workout. It may seem that this task is easy to do, but it is worth noting that the onset of the supercompensation phase can be different for different people. In addition, it is not easy to identify this phase for a number of reasons. Another factor that makes it difficult to determine the ideal time for next workout, is that supercompensation for different parameters occurs at different times. That is why the frequency and nature of training in bodybuilding play such an important role.
🔆 2. The principle of overload.
This principle reflects the fact that in order for the effect of supercompensation to take place, it is necessary that the effect on the body exceeds a certain threshold level. The magnitude of the load must be sufficient to trigger the adaptation mechanism and cause the phenomenon of supercompensation. In the practice of training, this is due to the constant increase in training loads.
This can be achieved by changing the parameters that determine the volume and intensity of a particular training load, by manipulating combinations of these parameters.
🔆 3. The principle of specificity.
The principle of specificity indicates that the most pronounced adaptive changes under the influence of training occur in organs and functional systems that are most loaded when performing physical activity (N.V. Volkov). They are those organs and systems on which the load transfer with less fatigue and the risk of any damage primarily depends.
🔆 4. The principle of reversibility.
The principle of reversibility is based on the phenomenon when the termination training sessions leads to the so-called detraining, that is, the gradual loss of qualities and functions acquired as a result of training. What happens, in fact, is the adaptation of the organism to new (reduced) requirements. "What is not used, then disappears."
🔆 5. The principle of cyclicity.
The implementation of the principle of cyclicality in practice is the periodization of the training process. Periodization is the cornerstone of the theory and practice of any sports training and health practices. The use of periodization in the planning of the training process is the only way to ensure a sufficiently long-term increase in sports results, while minimizing the possibility of overwork or overtraining.
Periodization in sports practice is used by dividing the training process into macro, meso and micro cycles.
It is advisable to ensure the undulation of load dynamics of various sizes (microcycles of moderate, medium and large loads). Increasing workloads after they have been reduced will provide the necessary impetus for further progress.
🔆 6. The principle of individuality.
According to the principle of individuality, loads should correspond to the current state of a person and change in accordance with changes in his body.
These are the differences due to physical fitness a person, his somato- and psychotype, age, the presence of certain deviations in the state of health, gender, age.
In addition, there are significant differences in the composition of muscle fibers, the activity of certain enzymes, in the level of metabolism, the effectiveness of the functioning of the neuromuscular, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive systems organism, biomechanical differences due to anatomical features. There are no absolutely right or wrong training methods, effective or ineffective exercises and loads. Each workout, characterized by a load of a certain magnitude and direction, corresponds to a specific person, his current physical condition, as well as the tasks of this training stage.
(Based on materials from the FPA textbook).
Adaptive shifts in the body depend on the type of exercise performed muscle work and are observed both in character and in manifestations of the cumulative effect.
The most pronounced effects of physical activity and adaptive changes are manifested in organs, systems and physiological mechanisms that are most loaded during physical activity (for which physical activity reaches a threshold or suprathreshold level) (“We train what we train”).
The specificity of training effects is manifested I
· Regarding motor skill (sports equipment) - the greatest effect of training is manifested in relation to that motor skill (sports technique) on which the training is aimed - principle of specialization. In this case, the training is aimed at developing and consolidating the technique of a certain movement and increasing its effectiveness, which requires the development intermuscular coordination, which is specific to a particular type of movement and, as a rule, is not transferred from one movement to another.
· Regarding the leading physical ability – training exercises and modes contribute to the most effective development of that motor ability for the development of which they were selected and applied. Examples.
o High-speed loads increase the increase in anaerobic capacity due to increased creatine phosphate and glycolytic ATP resynthesis.
o Speed-strength loads cause an increase in the content of creatine phosphate and glycogen in the muscles, the development of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, muscle hypertrophy myofibrillar type, a shift in the spectrum of muscle fibers towards fast fibers, an increase in resistance to lactic acid.
o Long-term aerobic loads increase the possibilities of aerobic energy supply: muscle hypertrophy of the sarcoplasmic type; an increase in the number and size of muscle mitochondria, myoglobin content, glycogen concentration and intramuscular myoglobin reserves, a shift in the spectrum of muscle fibers towards red fibers, an increase in BMD.
o Power loads increase muscle mass through the synthesis of contractile proteins.
· Regarding the composition of active muscle groups. Every kind motor activity(physical exercise) activates and trains certain muscle groups. The highest functional performance and the greatest efficiency are manifested when performing exercises using the main trained muscle groups. For example, in qualified athletes, the highest MPC is recorded when performing a specific (competitive) exercise.
· Regarding training conditions - adaptive changes in the body, resulting from training in certain environmental conditions, ensure the adaptation of the body to these specific environmental conditions.
Specific and non-specific components of adaptation to physical activity
· Non-specific changes are observed during the performance of any muscular work: increase in physical performance, improvement of regulation mechanisms, health promotion.
The ratio of specific and non-specific components depends on the nature of physical activity
o Adaptation to anaerobic loads is more specific than to aerobic ones, since in the first case, adaptation is primarily associated with changes in the active muscles themselves, and the second - with extramuscular factors (the state of the cardiorespiratory system, oxygen capacity of the blood, etc.).
o Highly specialized physical exercise have a more specific effect than general developmental exercises that have a general training effect. The latter type of exercise is preferred for use for recreational purposes or at the initial stages of sports training.
Regular systematic aerobic exercise in the training area (at the level of 50-80% of the IPC) causes adaptive changes that improve oxygen delivery to muscles and other organs and tissues, its transport to tissues and utilization. Distinguish between muscular cardiorespiratory adaptation to aerobic exercise. Such an adaptation, including both structural and functional changes, leads to an improvement in the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to contracting muscles, the removal of metabolic products, and improves the regulation of metabolism in individual muscle fibers.
Adaptation of oxygen-utilizing systems (muscular adaptation)
· Selective sarcoplasmic hypertrophy of slowly twitch type I muscle fibers with an increase in their oxidative capacity.
An increase in the density of capillaries in muscle fibers with an increase in the number of capillaries per fiber and the possibility of increasing the speed and volume of oxygen delivery to the muscles, nutrients and removal of metabolic end products.
Increased myoglobin content in muscles
Increasing the ability of mitochondria to oxidative resynthesis of ATP
an increase in the size and number of mitochondria
increasing the ability to oxidize lipids and carbohydrates
increasing the use of lipids as an energy fuel
increase in glycogen and triglycerides
Increased ability to display endurance
The content of myoglobin in the muscles. The results of studies conducted on animals indicate that the content of myoglobin in muscles under the influence of training can increase by 80%. Consequently, the potential for an inactive muscle fiber to carry oxygen is increased. The increase in the amount of myoglobin to increase the oxidative capacity of muscles at rest is small. The main effect of increasing the content of myoglobin occurs during muscular work and is associated with the facilitation of the diffusion of oxygen into the muscles from the blood.
Stocks of intramuscular energy sources. In a number of studies, it is noted that well-trained individuals at rest have a higher glycogen content (2.5 times compared to the untrained state). An increase in glycogen stores may be due, in particular, to an increase in the sensitivity of muscle cells to insulin, which occurs under the influence of training. This contributes to a faster entry of glucose into muscle fibers. In endurance athletes, the transition of glucose into muscle cells occurs approximately 60% more than in people who lead a sedentary lifestyle. Only in trained individuals were found significant reserves of glucose and glycogen in skeletal muscle Oh.
Insulin also promotes a dose-dependent increase in blood flow to insulin-responsive tissue. Because trained muscles have improved capillarization, this effect of insulin can increase oxygen delivery to them. In trained muscles, an increased ability to store glucose in the form of glycogen is developed. The concentration of muscle glycogen will depend on the time elapsed since the training load, and the amount of post-dietary intake of carbohydrates. The higher content of muscle glycogen in trained individuals may reflect the phenomenon of glycogen supercompensation.
Mitochondrial density in muscles and oxidative activity of enzymes. IN
In trained muscles, mitochondria are characterized by a significantly higher ability to oxidatively reduce ATP. The oxidative capacity of skeletal muscles is increased due to a marked increase in the surface area of the mitochondrial membrane, as well as the number of mitochondria per unit area. muscle tissue. On average, the size of skeletal muscle mitochondria in endurance athletes is 14-40% larger compared to untrained individuals with a sedentary lifestyle. This specific feature is manifested only in the fibers involved in the performance of the training exercise.
The principle of specificity involves taking into account the characteristics of the nature and forms various kinds activities that are conditioned by specific conditions and requirements for each activity. Each type of activity, having a common structure with other types of activity, implements it in a special way, characteristic of a particular activity.
Methods for studying the psychology of labor
Labor psychology as a branch of psychological science uses the entire arsenal of general psychological methods. Most methods are used in three independent plans:
For psychological analysis of professional activity;
To conduct a variety of applied research (professional selection, professional consultation, rationalization of work and leisure, etc.);
To study the personality of a particular employee, his abilities, motivation, states.
There are several classifications of labor psychology methods. It is possible to propose a classification of labor psychology methods, which includes two large categories of methods:
a group of non-experimental methods, which is a purposeful study of professional activity in natural conditions,
and a group of experimental methods, including a purposeful study of the organization of conditions and ways of performing activities.
The first group includes two main methods: the observation method and the survey method, as well as a number of additional methods and auxiliary tools.
The second group includes the experiment in its two varieties: laboratory and natural (industrial), as well as the test method.
Non-Experimental Methods
Traditionally, two types of observation are distinguished: external (direct) and internal (self-observation).
External, or direct, observation allows you to describe the actions, techniques and movements of the employee, their compliance with regulatory goals.
To increase the objectivity and accuracy of observation, a number of additional techniques and methods are used, which primarily relate to the registration of the results of professional activity. The most common among them are photography of the working day, timing, analysis of products of labor activity.
A photograph of a working day is a temporary registration of a sequence of actions, a change in work and rest modes, forced pauses in work, etc.
Timing - measuring the time of labor operations. It allows you to determine their duration, the frequency of repetition at certain intervals, the intensity of the labor process.
Analysis of the products of labor activity: both material, documented products of activity, and functional (procedural) products of activity can act as such.
Option this method is the analysis of erroneous actions, malfunctions, accidents and accidents.
Self-observation in labor psychology comes in two forms: professional self-report and participant observation (labor method).
In the first case, the psychologist suggests that the specialist think aloud during his activity, pronouncing each operation, each observation of the labor process.
In the second case, the psychologist himself becomes a student and, starting to study the profession, improves in it more and more.
This method is called the labor method in psychology. It began to be developed in the domestic psychology of labor in the 20s of the XX century. Its essence lies in the connection, in the person of a psychologist, of a researcher who is able and willing to describe professional work, and a worker who knows it.
Survey methods are traditionally presented in two forms: oral survey (conversation, interview) and written survey (questionnaire).
The conversation is one of the methods widely used in labor psychology and is used to cover the widest range of problems.
Questioning involves obtaining answers from respondents in writing to pre-formulated questions, while the psychologist may not have direct contact with employees.
Topic 1. Acquaintance
The objectives of the lesson: getting the participants acquainted with each other, concentration of attention, relieving tension in an unfamiliar environment, attention to a partner. The first lesson begins with the children getting acquainted with the room in which they will have to study the entire remedial course. Children can walk around, see everything that interests them. Then the children were given...
Prevention of conflicts in professionally mature teams
Conflict prevention consists in such an organization of the life of the subjects of social interaction, which eliminates or minimizes the likelihood of conflicts between them. The style of relations is understood as some stable stereotypes of consciousness and behavior, acquiring in a given organization the character of a ...
Organization and research methods. Stages of experimental work
The study included all the main stages of the experiment identified by V.N. Druzhinin [Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. - 2nd ed., add. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002. S. 78-85.]. 1) Primary formulation of the problem: - definition of the topic, goals and objectives; - choice of subject, object and method of research; - setting a psychological hypothesis. ...
