The study is devoted to the problems physical training in sports, namely: the study of issues related to the theoretical and methodological aspects of improving the functional state of the muscular apparatus of athletes training endurance.

This study is quite extensive. Therefore, I place the most interesting (in my opinion) excerpts from this work. I will try to get away from complex scientific formulations.

The immediate limiter for achieving a higher result when overcoming a competitive distance in cyclic sports (hereinafter referred to as CVS) is the onset of fatigue. Therefore, the ultimate goal of physical training will be to delay the onset of fatigue or increase the body's resistance to it.

For a long time, the performance of the cardiovascular system, the "endurance" of the central nervous and hormonal systems, etc., were given decisive importance. At the same time, there are athletes for whom the peripheral link of the motor system - the muscles - will be a limiting factor.

How to determine whether the “central” systems of a given athlete are a limiting link or not? The paradox is that there is currently no answer to this question in the literature.

In cyclic movements, a sports result depends on the performance of very specific muscle groups, and when building a training process with an emphasis on improving their performance, we can talk about the development of local (muscular) endurance (hereinafter LT). Therefore, in our study, we use the term "local endurance" in the latter, broader sense.

In other words, the high power of the energy and contractile systems localized directly in the muscles and determining the so-called. local endurance (LT) (the term “local muscle endurance” is used in foreign studies), allows you to delay the onset of fatigue both by itself and by reducing the load on “central factors”, the intensive functioning of which can also lead to fatigue.

The problem of developing local endurance arises when there are no genetically determined restrictions on the part of the components of the “central link” (motor centers of the spinal cord and brain, cardiovascular system, hormonal system, etc.), or when, due to the characteristics of the training process, the level development of certain muscle components that determine the endurance of athletes, lags behind the performance of the "central", for example, Vin the event of an overdose of low-intensity training products, the level of muscle strength will be insufficient to achieve the highest result, etc. Increasing the strength capabilities of muscles is considered the main condition for improving local endurance.

There is one more point which should be specially explained. One of the key points of the developed theory is the assertion that the “basic” place in the fitness of athletes in the CVS is occupied by muscle strength (and, accordingly, all varieties strength training), rather than aerobic capacity (and thus aerobic fitness). At the same time, we argue that aerobic fitness, while not being “basic”, is at the same time basic and implementational, i.e. the one on which sports performance directly depends. Failure to understand this key idea causes critical remarks, according to which we are credited with the absolutization of strength and underestimation of the aerobic aspects of preparedness and training in the CVS.

Absolutization of the role of strength training is a delusion.

The main training means of developing local endurance in cyclic sports (with the exception of sprint distances - up to 40 seconds) are those that are aimed at increasing the performance of slow muscle fibers, the main muscle groups for a given locomotion and the oxidative potential of fast muscle fibers of these muscles. All other training aids are optional.

The main methods in the development of drugs are those that create conditions inside the muscles for hypertrophy of slow muscle fibers (deficiency of macroergs, accumulation of metabolites with an increase in muscle power potential) and long-term aerobic conditions with intensive functioning (recruitment) of all types of muscle fibers (during aerobic training).

The main means and methods for increasing the alactic and glycolytic abilities of muscles are strength, speed-strength and sprint exercises (duration up to 40 seconds).

When planning the training process, one should be guided by the following provisions:

• unidirectional occupation is more effective than "mixed";
• when planning one training session and microcycle should adhere to the rule that aerobic training should be preceded by strength training;
• the construction of a mesocycle will be optimal if, by the end of it, a significant increase in the trained indicator of LP is achieved while maintaining or a smaller increase in others;
• "basic" position of strength abilities relative to aerobic, glycolytic and alactate;
• a faster increase in glycolytic and alactic abilities relative to aerobic and strength ones;
• aerobic capacity is not "basic" for glycolytic.

In this regard, with the consistent distribution of training means: first, strength is planned in a larger volume, then aerobic, then alactic and glycolytic. An accentuated impact on some ability involves maintaining the achieved level of other abilities. The severity of accents decreases as the skill and experience of sportsmen increase.

Preparation planning:

• When planning a training session, as a rule, exercises are used first to develop endurance, and then strength. And in swimming - on the contrary.
• Exercises for the development of speed-strength qualities are used in all parts of the session, but more often - at the beginning and, as a rule, are associated with alactic or glycolytic training.
• With two workouts, strength-oriented exercises are used more often in the second half of the day.
• In the microcycle in various sports, the same components of strength abilities are trained from 1 to 7 times. Most often - in skating, swimming and cycling. Most rarely (1-2 times a week) - on the run.
• The macrocycle uses both concentrated and distributed application of the appropriate means. Maximum strength develops: in cycling, skiing, skating - at the beginning of the preparatory period; in rowing - at the 2nd basic stage; in swimming - on the 2nd basic, in the pre-competitive and competitive periods; in running - at the 2nd basic stage and in the pre-competitive period. Explosive power: in cycling, rowing, swimming and running - in the pre-competitive and competitive periods; in skating and skiing preparation period. Strength endurance - in cycling, skiing, rowing and swimming - year-round with a 2-3 month break in the transition period. In skates - in the preparatory and transitional periods. In running - at the second basic stage, in the pre-competitive and competitive periods.

1. Currently, there is no convincing evidence that the muscles of qualified athletes experience a hypoxic state (lack of oxygen), which limits the rate of energy production in mitochondria when performing competitive locomotion of any power, including maximum alactic (MAM), due to their inadequate supply from CCC.
2. Based on modern data on the mechanisms and speed of deployment of the main reactions of energy supply, it was concluded that there is an adequate supply of oxygen to the muscles at the beginning of any distance (including sprint), when the process of “working in” the muscle oxygen supply system is in progress. Therefore, in our opinion, the hypothesis of oxygen deficiency at the beginning of the distance due to the "inertia" of the cardiovascular system is also unfounded.
3. Inadequate muscle oxygen supply - anaerobic conditions of their functioning (i.e. when the ability of the muscles to utilize oxygen exceeds the ability of the CCC to deliver it) - can only be observed in case of muscle ischemia (as, for example, when performing static, static-dynamic strength exercises, or with blood flow restriction in a working muscle) or at the finish of a very intense run (in the phase of uncompensated fatigue). This means that the performance of movements with any intensity can be considered as "aerobic" exercises and used for aerobic training.
4. However, depending on the intensity and duration of the exercise, the object of influence will change, which is due to the manifestation of Henneman's "size rule", confirmed in relation to cyclic movements. When the power of work is up to the anaerobic threshold (AnT), the object of influence is slow muscle fibers(hereinafter MV), at the level of AnP - slow and part of the fast oxidative BoMV, above AnP - all oxidative MV (BoMV). The degree of involvement (recruitment) of BoMV increases not only as the power of work increases, but also as its duration increases. Fast glycolytic BgMV are recruited only during near-maximal or maximum work: speed, contraction power or muscle tension strength, as well as at the end of intensive work “to failure”. However, in this case, an intensive accumulation of hydrogen ions occurs (decrease in pH in the muscles or acidification).
5. There are two ways to increase the degree of BoMV and BgMV recruitment without significant “acidification” of muscles: using short sprint accelerations; an increase in the strength of muscle contraction in each step (stroke, etc.) while reducing the frequency (steps, strokes) and maintaining or increasing the ratio of the duration of the "relaxation / tension" phases of the muscles.
6. When working above AnP, the formation of lactic acid (LA or lactate) begins already 10-15 seconds after the start. However, the first half of the competitive distance (for highly skilled athletes - 2/3 of the distance) MC is a condition for the maximum power of aerobic processes in the muscles. Therefore, regardless of power, such work is an effective means of aerobic rather than glycolytic muscle training.
7. Anaerobic glycolysis (as the sum of reactions in BMV and BgMV) can reach its maximum power (rate of ATP resynthesis) only during sprint work in the interval from approximately 10 to 30 seconds. Only at these distances, the amount of key enzymes of anaerobic glycolysis (and glycogenolysis) is the limiting factor in sports performance. Their mass is increased through strength and sprint training.
8. Calculations involving the dynamics of the respiratory coefficient and energy consumption when overcoming long and marathon distances showed that the share of oxidizable lipids in the total energy production and the total energy output during their oxidation decreases with increasing qualification at all distances, including the marathon (2 hours 10 minutes). Therefore, "lipid oxidizing capacity" is not a limiting factor at these distances and cannot be used as a basis for using large volumes of aerobic work with power below ANP in training.
9. The main contribution to the mechanical work performed at distances longer than 40 seconds is made by slow muscle fibers. However, they do not produce lactic acid. Therefore, the strategy for increasing local endurance in the CVR will largely be associated with an increase in the performance of slow muscle fibers. These fibers are genetically predisposed to aerobic metabolism, so there is reason to believe that the mass of mitochondrial proteins in these MFs in qualified athletes is close to the maximum (relative to the mass of contractile proteins) or, at least, easily reaches the maximum during specialized training within 1-2 mesocycles. In this regard, it can be clarified that the main direction of the strategy for increasing local endurance will be to increase the strength (hypertrophy) of slow muscle fibers (hereinafter SMF).
10. However, it is known that aerobic exercise alone does not lead to muscle fiber hypertrophy in either humans or animals; and with depleting volumes, it may be accompanied by a decrease in area cross section fibers (hereinafter referred to as PPS) with a pronounced increase in aerobic performance; elite cyclists had lower PPPs than weaker cyclists.
11. As follows from modern ideas about the mechanisms of induction of the synthesis of contractile proteins, strength exercises that lead to MMB hypertrophy are, the characteristics of which are as follows:
    • - slow, smooth nature of movements;
    • - a relatively small amount of force to be overcome or the degree of muscle tension (40-60% of the MPS);
    • - lack of muscle relaxation during the entire approach;
    • - execution of the approach to "failure".
    • - training, as a rule, with the use of supersets for all major muscle groups;
    • - a sufficiently long duration of the entire workout (at least 1 hour). Such training resembles bodybuilding, but differs from the latter in a significantly lower amount of effort (40-60% of MPS), which is supposed to reduce the impact on fast MV, preventing excessive muscle hypertrophy and the associated increase in body weight.
12. With a combination of aerobic and power types of training, the effectiveness of power decreases to a much greater extent.
13. In the preparatory period, when planning training for the development of PE, the main two types of classes are:
    • aimed at increasing the strength of the main muscles (induction of the synthesis of contractile proteins);
    • aimed at increasing the oxidative potential of fast MVs (induction of the synthesis of mitochondrial proteins).
    • the most effective unidirectional activity of the 1st or 2nd type.
14. If it is necessary to combine two types of load in one lesson, a more effective option is when aerobic is performed first, then power with an interval between them of 20-30 minutes with carbohydrate nutrition.
15. When scheduling two workouts a day or a microcycle, it is advisable to follow the same principle: aerobic training is performed first, then strength training, followed by an active rest day or low energy cost training. Otherwise, the efficiency drops sharply. strength training or, even, there may be a regression of strength abilities, since the synthesis of myofibrillar proteins is significantly longer than mitochondrial proteins, and can be “blocked” by aerobic training with a high energy cost.
16. The "half-life" period of most proteins of the neuromuscular apparatus does not exceed 10-12 days. Therefore, if during the mesocycle (21-28 days) there is no increase in the trained ability, then this means that the training is built incorrectly. We failed to find any theoretical grounds confirming the expediency of long-term (up to 2-3 mesocycles) maintenance of reduced values ​​of the trained function indicators in order to obtain a delayed cumulative effect.
17. The results of the experiments indicate that the training effect on the muscles (presumably, on the MMV and BoMV) through static-dynamic exercises, despite the artificially created anaerobic conditions for the work of the muscles, dramatically increases the efficiency aerobic workout.
18. In accordance with the theoretical provisions, the minimum set of test indicators for monitoring the dynamics of LP during training should have included:

• aerobic (AeP) and anaerobic (AnA) thresholds as characteristics of muscle aerobic abilities;
• an indicator of the strength of slow muscle fibers;
• indicator of local (glycolytic) performance in a 30-40-second test;
• an indicator of muscle alactic power. Due to the fact that in the process of conducting natural pedagogical experiments it is necessary;
• the state of the cardiovascular system;
• economy.

Consistent distribution of the load "from strength to endurance" while minimizing the volume of low-performance aerobic means allows you to achieve a significant increase in sports results.

In the spring-summer macrocycle, three 4-week mesocycles were planned, in which, according to the scheme developed by us, training work was performed, which included two strength and three aerobic workouts in the microcycle. Another one was devoted to long-term aerobic running and general physical training. A continuous and simultaneous increase in both the strength and aerobic abilities of the muscles was achieved, exceeding the performance of the control group. The fundamental point is a significantly more significant improvement in the indicators of the state of the cardiovascular system in the experimental group compared to the control group, which used significantly larger volumes of low-intensity running means.

Experiment (one of many variations). The main subject of research in strength training was power complex exercises performed serially according to the circular method (3-10 series). The principles for performing each approach are described previously. Rest intervals between series were filled with jogging or relaxing stretching. The complex (“1 circle”) included exercises for: triceps muscle shins; knee flexors and extensors ankle joint; knee extensors; hip flexors. Sometimes the complex was supplemented with exercises for the back muscles and abdominals. The main means of "aerobic training BMW" were: variable running under weighted conditions (with resistance, uphill, on sand), sprint accelerations during aerobic running; running at the ANP level on rugged terrain and sandy ground, interval running on the track at competitive speed. Other traditional means and methods of training runners were used as additional means.

The main elements other than traditional system training with a huge amount of low-intensity aerobic work, this approximate scheme can serve:

• loads of power and speed-strength orientation are planned at the beginning of the macrocycle with approximately the same total volume;
• a greater ratio of "effective" and "inefficient" means of aerobic training with significantly smaller volumes of "inefficient";
• concentration of "effective" means of aerobic training at the end of the preparatory and pre-competitive periods;
• the concentration of alactic and glycolytic agents in the competitive period while minimizing the volumes of the latter.

The main distinguishing features of the microcycle planning scheme are:

• the predominance of unidirectional training sessions;
• a day of rest after strength training at the stage of increasing strength abilities;
• obligatory presence of trainings of a technical orientation (competitive orientation) at all stages of the microcycle.

Source of information: according to the materials of Myakinchenko E.B.

Exercise systems

The main groups of sports and modern

Brief psychophysical characteristics

In sports pedagogy, there are various approaches to grouping sports according to their impact on the human body, on the development and formation of psychophysical qualities. Such a grouping, of course, is very arbitrary, since not a single sport, not a single system of physical exercises affects a person in the same way, does not develop any one physical quality in a “pure” form. However, such groupings make it possible to unite various sports, systems of physical exercises according to their leading feature and give them a single detailed characteristic, which is necessary for an individual choice of a sport or a system of physical exercises. In addition, such a conditional grouping allows the reader to better navigate the proposed characteristics of individual sports and systems of physical exercises.

The problem of accentuated education and improvement of basic physical qualities - endurance, strength, speed, flexibility, dexterity - is less complicated at the initial stages of systematic physical exercises, since during this period, beginners, as a rule, simultaneously improve all these qualities. It is no coincidence that at this stage of preparation, the complex method of training gives the greatest effect, i.e. general physical/preparation (see chapter 5, section 5.6). However, as fitness increases in any individual physical capacity, with a gradual increase in sports qualifications from a beginner to a sportsman-athlete, the value of mutual positive effect("transfer") gradually decreases. With a high level of preparedness, the development of one physical quality begins to slow down the development of another.

Sports that mainly develop endurance. Building Endurance in Progress sports training- one of the effective means of achieving high performance, which is based on the stability of the central nervous system and a number of functional systems of the body to fatigue.

The physiological mechanisms of this process are very complex. High performance is ensured due to various changes in the body of an adaptive (adaptive) nature that occur under the influence of regular training: morphological and functional development of the heart muscle, increased elasticity of the walls of blood vessels, an increase in the supply of energy-rich substances in muscles and internal organs, high efficiency and stability of the nervous system. Sports that focus on developing general endurance include all cyclic sports in which physical activity continues for a relatively long time against the background of a predominant increase in aerobic (oxygen) metabolism in the human body: race walking, running for medium, long and extra long distances, cycling (road racing, cross-country, a group of classic distances on the track), ski race and biathlon, swimming, most of the distances in speed skating, orienteering, triathlon.

A high level of general endurance is one of the main indications of a person's excellent health. With the help of regular sports activities that develop overall endurance, individual indicators can be significantly improved. physical development: increase excursion chest and vital capacity of the lungs, significantly reduce fat layer, i.e. excess body weight. Such classes allow a practically healthy person, but with reduced functionality of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems improve overall performance, resist fatigue.

There are several types of fatigue: mental, sensory (associated with a predominant load on the senses), emotional, physical, in which both the mechanism of fatigue and the manifestation of the so-called special endurance will have their own differences. However, it is general endurance that determines the possibilities of manifestation of special endurance not only in specific sports, but also in any labor activity.

Thus, military experts found that persons with developed general endurance (in this case, the ability to run for a long time) had the highest and most stable speed of work on radiotelegraph devices (small quick movement of the fingers).

Endurance is important in preparing a person for long and full-fledged work in any professional group. All vital skills and abilities - fast and economical walking and cross-country skiing, swimming - are mastered in cyclic sports that develop general endurance.

Thus, sports that develop general endurance are considered to be applied to all professional types of work. Classes in these sports, carried out with low intensity (pulse up to 130 beats / min), but for a relatively long time, are an excellent means of active recreation and recovery of working capacity.

If there are individual cases of achieving sports heights by young people who began regular, systematic and persistent training at student age, then most of these cases relate to sports that develop mainly general endurance. Optimal opportunities to achieve the highest sports results in these sports are within 22-27 years. :

However, when starting training in these sports, one must immediately tune in to a lot of hard work associated with cultivating the ability to volitionally resist fatigue (patience) not only during competitive, but also in training activities.

Characteristics of sports that mainly develop strength and speed-strength qualities. An outstanding athlete, Olympic champion, writer Yu.V. Vlasov said: “Every person has material in order to cultivate strength in himself. A naturally strong person has the makings of becoming the strongest. But will determines strength.

Meanwhile, in various sports, in life situations, strength can manifest itself in different ways, in combination with other physical qualities. That is why they say about individual manifestations of strength qualities: absolute strength, relative strength, strength endurance, speed-strength qualities. Behind each of these qualities are certain sports, different methods of developing strength qualities, different goals in achieving sports, work and life tasks.

Weightlifting - is a sport in which exercises are performed with maximum muscle tension while lifting the largest possible weights (in the appropriate weight class and in the corresponding exercise - in the snatch and clean and jerk). For this, dynamic and isometric training exercises with significant muscle tension(see ch. 5, sec. 5.4).

In weightlifting classes, the ability to maximize muscle efforts of muscle groups is mainly improved. lower extremities, trunk and extensor arms. Success is achieved by athletes who are able to regulate the degree of excitation of the nervous system, to achieve the coordinated work of various muscle groups against the background of maximum muscle and mental stress. When lifting a significant weight and the resulting straining, the load on the cardiovascular system due to rapid and sharp fluctuations in the blood supply to the heart and blood vessels. With improper organization of training, weightlifters may experience deviations in the state of the circulatory system.

In many types of modern work activity, the development of relative muscle strength is of decisive importance. That's why weight-lifting with its multiple and varied lifts of non-limiting weight (24 and 32 kg kettlebells), it is more consistent with domestic and professional activities that require the manifestation of strength than weightlifting (barbell), where training is aimed at a single lifting of the maximum weight. The main feature of kettlebell lifting is the duration of the strength exercise, which requires an extraordinary strength endurance. For example, high achievements in the clean and jerk with two hands, lifts are considered more than 30 times (weights 32 kg) for athletes weighing up to 60 kg and more than 155-160 times - for the weight category over 90 kg. Therefore, in training plans weightlifters firmly established endurance exercises (jogging at a uniform pace up to 15 km).

Athletic gymnastics - a system of exercises with various weights. This is an independent public sport, which in recent years has also been actively practiced by women.

Athletic gymnastics allows you to selectively increase mass individual groups muscles, which leads to an increase in their strength and strength endurance, to the improvement of the physique. It should be noted that the unequal increase in the mass of muscle groups in athletes of different body types (for more details, see Chapter 5, Section 5.4).

The age-related features of the natural development of a person's strength qualities make it possible to achieve the highest sports results in strength exercises at a student's age and even after graduating from a higher educational institution.

A special group consists of sports associated with the development of speed-strength qualities. This athletics throwing(spear, disk, hammer), shot put and jumping. special place in the training of athletes of this group of species athletics has the development of strength and speed muscle contraction. Athletes involved in these sports include in their training a large amount of exercises with a barbell and other weights to develop strength. Strength training is an integral part of the training process in a number of other sports (hockey, wrestling), but there this type of physical exercise “dissolves” in a complex of other means, acquiring not an independent, but an auxiliary value.

Characteristics of sports that develop mainly speed. Agility should not be confused with movement speed (in

running, skating). In addition to the speed of the reaction of a motor action, the speed of movement is determined by both strength readiness and rationality (technique) of a motor exercise.

Sports science and practice have repeatedly confirmed that "if a person shows speed abilities in one sports discipline, then it is not at all necessary that he will show them in another, because a direct direct transfer of the speed of movements occurs only in coordination similar movements. High requirements for speed of reaction, the speed of cyclic and acyclic movements are presented in some athletics disciplines (running 100, 200 m, 100 and 110 m hurdles) in speed skating (running 500 m), cycling (a number of short distances on the track), in fencing, boxing and other martial arts, in a number of sports games. But in each case, the speed has its own specifics.

In order to cultivate the speed of movements in students, specially organized classes are required in preparation for the implementation of mandatory test standards, for example, in the 100-meter run. improvement of speed qualities in each sport.

The physical quality of speed is not essential in health promotion, physique correction. However, the development of speed is a necessary element in the training of representatives of a number of sports disciplines.

Characteristics of sports that mainly develop coordination of movements (dexterity). Dexterity determines the success of mastering new sports and labor movements, the manifestation of strength and endurance. good coordination movements contributes to the training of professional skills and abilities. Therefore, the education of dexterity should be given time in terms of general physical and sports training students. This is ensured by a sufficient variety and novelty of available exercises from various sports to create a stock of motor skills in trainees and improve coordination abilities.

The greatest effect in the development of agility is provided by such complex coordination sports as sports v acrobatics, sports and artistic gymnastics, diving, trampolining, ski jumping, slalom, freestyle, figure skating And sport games.

All these types (except for sports games) do not have a significant effect on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, but make significant demands on the preparation of the neuromuscular apparatus, on the volitional qualities of athletes.

Due to the complexity and duration of the formation of coordination movements, it makes no sense to start specializing in these sports at a student age in order to achieve the highest sports results. The foundation of complex coordination movements is laid in childhood and requires many years of regular systematic training.

All sports that have become widespread in the world are classified according to the characteristics of the subject of competition and the nature of motor activity into six groups (L.P. Matveev, 1977):

First group- sports, which are characterized by active motor activity of athletes with the utmost manifestation of physical and mental qualities. Sports achievements in these sports depend on the athlete's own motor abilities. This group includes most sports.

Second group- sports, the operational basis of which is the actions to control special technical vehicles (car, motorcycle, yacht, aircraft, etc.). The sports result in these types is largely due to the ability to effectively manage the technical equipment and the quality of its manufacture.

Third group- sports, in which motor activity is strictly limited by the conditions for hitting a target with a special weapon (shooting, darts, etc.).

Fourth group- sports in which the results of the model and design activities of an athlete are compared (aircraft models, car models, etc.).

Fifth group- sports, the main content of which is determined at competitions by the nature of the abstract-logical beating of an opponent (chess, checkers, bridge, etc.).

Sixth group- all-around, composed of sports disciplines included in various groups of sports (orienteering, biathlon, sea all-around, service all-around, etc.).

Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences Yu.F. Kuramshin draws attention to the fact that “each sport has its own specific requirements for the physical fitness of athletes - the level of development of individual qualities, functionality and physique. Therefore, there are certain differences in the content and methods of physical training in a particular sport, athletes different ages and qualifications” (Table 7) .

Table 7

The significance of individual indicators of physical fitness

Athletes in various sports (Yu.F. Kuramshin, 2003)

Kinds of sports	Indicators
	leading	complementary	secondary
Acrobatics, gymnastics, diving, figure skating	Coordination and strength abilities, flexibility, body constitution, posture, specific body weight	Speed ​​abilities	Endurance
Fencing, boxing, wrestling	Speed ​​and coordination abilities	Strength abilities, body constitution, endurance	Flexibility, endurance
Basketball, volleyball, handball	High body length, coordination, speed-strength and speed abilities	Endurance	Flexibility, actual strength abilities
Athletics (sprint, jumping, hurdling)	Speed, speed-strength and coordination abilities, flexibility, condition of the arches of the foot		Endurance
Athletics (middle and long distance running), cross-country skiing	Endurance, volume and size of the heart, the magnitude of the stroke and minute volume of the heart	Coordination, proper power and speed abilities	Flexibility
Football, hockey	Speed ​​and coordination abilities, endurance	Own power abilities	Flexibility

Curriculum for physical education provides for freedom of choice of sports for students of the main and sports departments. Students are invited to independently choose a sport or a system of physical exercises for systematic studies in the process of studying at a university. The choice of sports has a certain motivational focus: health promotion, correction of shortcomings in physical development and physique; increasing the functionality of the body; psychophysical preparation for future professional activity, mastering vital skills and abilities; leisure; achievement of the highest sports results.

Sports that mainly develop endurance

Sports that focus on developing general endurance include all cyclic sports in which physical activity continues for a relatively long time against the background of a predominant increase in aerobic (oxygen) metabolism in the human body. Such sports include: race walking; running for medium, long and extra long distances (marathon); cross-country skiing and biathlon; swimming; rowing; cycling (road racing, cross-country, a group of classic distances on the track); most distances and all-around events in speed skating; mountaineering; orienteering; tourism, etc.

Sports that mainly develop endurance significantly increase general and special endurance in regularly trained athletes, resistance to changing meteorological factors, improve emotional balance and volitional qualities.

Sports that mainly develop strength

And speed-strength qualities

Sports that mainly develop strength and speed-strength qualities belong mainly to the group of acyclic sports, the characteristic features of which are the ability to manifest strength and speed of muscle contraction. Power sports proper, such as weightlifting, kettlebell lifting, athletic gymnastics, include those sports in which the maximum strength during sports movement varies depending on the size of the predominant mass (barbell weight, etc.).

Sports movements in which the force changes in accordance with the amount of acceleration imparted to a constant mass ( own weight athlete, sports equipment) are called speed-power. A special group is made up of acyclic sports that develop predominantly speed-strength qualities, i.e., the ability to develop maximum muscle effort in a short period of time. First of all, they should include track and field jumps and throwing, which in their fundamental principle were natural types of human movement at the time of overcoming obstacles or throwing objects at a distance. Due to its specificity, increased requirements for speed, which is largely an innate quality, specialization in speed-strength disciplines is the lot of younger athletes.

Sports that contribute to the development of speed

The greatest requirements for the manifestation of speed abilities are imposed by sprint distances in athletics (running for 100 meters, 200 meters, hurdles for 100 meters and 110 meters), speed skating (500 meters), cycling (a number of short distances on the track) . Athletes competing at these distances are required to have a good reaction at the start, the speed of cyclic movements at a distance. Naturally, the preparation for these sports disciplines increases the athlete's speed capabilities. One of the main prerequisites for speed (speed abilities) is the mobility of nervous processes and the level of neuromuscular coordination.

Viktor Nikolaevich Seluyanov, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, laboratory " Information Technology In sports"

In theory and methodology physical education and sports distinguish between general regional and local muscle endurance. The classification of these types of endurance is made according to the size of the mass of the muscles involved in the work. Moreover, no one knows how to determine the magnitude of muscle mass. Therefore, this classification cannot be accepted and, moreover, practically used.

Undoubtedly, local endurance (LT) can be associated with phenomena that characterize the performance of the neuromuscular apparatus during physical work of a static or dynamic nature, when so few muscles are active that the heart rate practically does not change.

With regard to cyclic locomotion (when working with a large muscle mass), this concept has been used relatively recently. The most detailed study of LP as one of the main components of the special physical fitness of athletes training endurance was first considered in the monographs of Yu. V. Verkhoshansky published in 1985 and 1988. device to improve sports performance in the CVS. It follows from his works that, firstly, the training of the executive level is more important for sports results in the CVS than the training of the vegetative supporting systems of the body, and secondly, it requires significantly more time and effort. This statement, of course, is not correct, since first it is necessary to perform testing and justify that the peripheral link is limiting.

The problem of educating local endurance should be considered from two interrelated aspects: (a) the development of the strength abilities of the main muscle groups and (b) the development of the ability to maintain high or optimal efforts for a long time, from which, in fact, a sports result is formed at all distances at which a significant value has such a physical quality as endurance.

In this aspect, the methods of developing local endurance in the CVS include the use of all means and methods aimed at improving:

1) Power capabilities of the main muscle groups of athletes in various variants of their manifestations, namely:

- maximum force in static or dynamic modes;

- explosive strength and other manifestations of speed-strength capabilities;

— strength endurance in dynamic cyclic exercises similar in biomechanical parameters to competitive locomotion.

2) Muscle endurance manifested in the main competitive locomotion at different work intensity (from sprint to moderate power).

Interest in LP, as a component of the fitness of athletes in the CVS, arose due to the fact that in recent decades it has become obvious that the reserves of the extensive way to improve the fitness of athletes by increasing the total amount of load have become depleted, which is due to the limited "gross" reserves of the human body, associated mainly way, with the possibility of replenishing energy and plastic resources. Therefore, many experts agree that the way to further improve sports results is associated with the search for more effective, more specific means of influencing physical state athletes. As one of the main directions, the improvement of the methods of strength training of athletes in the CVS is often understood, since it has been shown repeatedly and in all the CVS without exception that the rational use of means of accentuated impact on the neuromuscular apparatus can lead to an increase in sports results, therefore right choice means of strength training, depending on the direction and magnitude of their training impact, the specifics of the technique of movements and the mode of operation of the muscles in this type of locomotion, is an urgent task of the theory and methodology of training in the CVS.

At the same time, it is well known from practice and numerous studies that the high strength capabilities of the muscles themselves are not associated or even have a negative correlation with sports results in the CVS, especially over long distances. This result is obvious, since an increase in the strength of glycolytic muscle fibers, which are practically not involved in running for medium and long distances, leads to an increase in ballast body mass. In this regard, one of the most urgent is the problem of the implementation of the power capabilities of the muscles in the main competitive exercise. According to experts, the solution of related problems implies:

- determination of the rational ratio of the volumes of means of power orientation with other means of training, in particular - aerobic;

– determination of the optimal distribution of means of power orientation within the framework of one lesson, micro-, meso- and macrocycles and long-term training of athletes and other means that should contribute to the realization of power abilities;

- coupled solution of problems of technical and special strength training.

Means and methods of developing strength abilities in cyclic sports

In sports training, the following methods of strength development are distinguished.

By the nature of the muscles:

- isometric characterized by a constant distance between the points of attachment of the muscle in the process of tension, which can be of different sizes relative to the maximum arbitrary force (MPS);

- concentric- muscle shortens different speed, depending on the resistance value;

- eccentric, in which the maximally activated muscle is forcibly stretched under the influence of an external force;

- plyometric(reverse) is characterized by a rapid change in the eccentric and concentric modes of muscle work (for example, pushing up after jumping off a hill);

- isokinetic- the muscle contracts at a constant speed, regardless of the magnitude of its tension or traction. This method can only be implemented on special training devices;

- variable resistance method also involves the use of simulators, in which the resistance value changes according to a certain law, depending, as a rule, on the angle in the joint of the limb being trained;

- static-dynamic characterized by a stop in the cycle of movement, during which the muscle works in isometric mode, that is, it is a combination of isometric and concentric methods;

- isotonic, literally, it implies a constant degree of muscle tension, however, in natural conditions, such a regimen cannot be implemented, therefore it is more correct to speak of a quasi-isotonic mode of muscle work and, accordingly, a method. When using this method, movements are performed at a slow pace and, if possible, smoothly, without muscle relaxation at the boundary moments of the movement phases;

- high-speed method is different top speed acceleration of the projectile, body weight or overcoming resistance of 20-60% of the MPS;

- contrast- a variation of the previous one, but the amount of resistance changes along the way.

- electrostimulation method, usually used in combination with voluntary muscle tension and additional irritation of the abdomen or motor nerve of the muscle.

By building a workout:

- repeated efforts- this is a cyclic performance of repeated efforts with a different nature of muscle work and rest pauses. All cyclic locomotions performed in the so-called. "weighted conditions" can be attributed to this method;

- maximum effort is a variation of the repeated effort method, which involves an exercise with extreme weights or a degree of muscle tension;

- re-serial method is a combination of series of approaches with an extended rest interval between series;

- intermediate is an exercise with light weights, an unlimited number of repetitions with a static-dynamic nature of muscle work, recommended for young athletes;

- circular method involves work at the “stations” at which training is carried out or different muscle groups or there is a change in the mode of muscle work, that is, a change in the direction of the training effect.

Which of these methods are most commonly used in the CVS and in relation to what goals of strength training?

An analysis of the literature shows that all of the listed methods are used or recommended for use based on the data of pedagogical observations or experimental studies. However, the grounds and goals of applying certain methods differ quite significantly.

In the most general view, in our opinion, the grounds for the use of strength exercises in the CVS are defined in the work of F. P. Suslov and V. B. Gilyazova: step frequency. … the elastic and reactive properties of muscles and their ability to recuperate (return) mechanical energy are improved …, which increases the efficiency of the functioning of the muscular system. “Most specialists express similar views.

It is believed that these positive changes will occur if improvement is achieved in training:

Maximum strength;

Explosive strength;

Strength endurance.

How should training be structured so that the use of the methods listed above contributes to the improvement of the components of strength training?

There is an extensive literature on this issue, summing up the opinions of specialists and research data, we can present the following generalized picture of the methodology for using the means of developing strength abilities in the CVS.

Maximum strength is most effectively improved when using isometric, concentric, eccentric modes of muscle work, electrical stimulation method, applied according to the method of repeated maximum efforts. The load value (VN) is 85–130% of the MPS, the number of repetitions (KP) in the approach is 1–5, the number of approaches (PR) is 3–10, the rest interval (IR) between sets is 3–5 minutes. If in training the task is to increase not only muscle strength, but also muscle mass [hypertrophy of muscle fibers (MF)], then these methods and muscle regimens are supplemented by a repeated and / or repeated-serial method with a decrease in VN to 70-85%, IE between approaches up to 30–120 seconds and an increase in CP to 8–12., AI between series - 5–10 minutes. Training can be carried out in a variety of options and conditions, but in most cases heavy equipment or specialized simulators are used. The above methods should increase the frequency of discharges of α-mtooneurons, improve the ability to synchronize the work of individual motor units (MU) of the muscle and voluntarily mobilize a larger number of them, promote hypertrophy of muscle fibers and improve coordination in the work of synergist and antagonist muscles.

Experts believe that explosive strength will improve when using plyometric, speed, contrast and isometric modes of muscle work, most often performed using the maximum effort method or the repetitive-serial method. In the first case: VN - 85-130% of the MPS, CP in the approach 1-5, PR - 3-10, IE 2-5 minutes. In the second: VN - 50–85%, CP - 4–30, PR organized in series, 6–12, IS between series 5–10 minutes. The most common are jumping exercises, repulsions after a deep jump, "explosive" exercises with weights, with a high rate of movement, etc. It is assumed that in the case of using large weights, the explosive strength provided by all muscle motor units (MU) is improved, if weights are small, then there is an improvement in the ability for explosive efforts due to the work, mainly of fast MUs. However, there is evidence that the order of MU recruitment is determined only by the strength, but not by the speed of muscle contraction. It is believed that greater explosive power is achieved with better synchronization of DE impulses, "spike" organization of these impulses, greater muscle strength, greater strength and better elastic properties of the connective tissue elements of the musculoskeletal system (OMA). This thought appears only in the minds of specialists not familiar with physiology muscle activity, since the synchronization of electrical impulses is meaningless. Each MU has its own maximum impulse frequency, at which the maximum concentration of calcium in active muscle fibers is observed, which means the force of contraction.

The greatest attention in the CVS is traditionally paid to the strength endurance of the muscles, which develops with various variants of the method of repeated efforts and circular method on simulators and under "weighted" conditions for performing the locomotion itself in all CVS. Strength endurance is always considered in connection with the performance of the main reactions of the energy supply of the muscles. Depending on the length of the distance, we can talk about the predominant relationship between strength and endurance during work of an anaerobic, aerobic or mixed nature, therefore, the methodological characteristics of the training session vary: VN - 40–70%, the duration of work ranges from 12 seconds to 30 minutes, PR - from 2 to 40, the number of series - from 1 to 12, rest pauses - from 10 seconds to 10 minutes. When exercising on simulators: 30-70% of the MPS, CP - 30-200, PE - 3-10, IO - 1-4.

The main methodological requirement for improving strength endurance in relation to short distances is to increase the power of the working force in each cycle of movements due to such a selection of time and amplitude characteristics, at which the greatest power of the contractile apparatus of the muscles is achieved. This requirement is realized at about 40% of the maximum speed of unloaded muscle contraction, therefore, in such CVAs as cycling, athletics sprint, swimming, the speed of muscle contraction when performing special exercises is lower than the competitive one, and in rowing it is higher.

With regard to medium distances, it is believed that it is necessary to achieve top speed accumulation of lactic acid and high values ​​of its concentration in the muscles. This requirement can be implemented, in practice, subject to the same requirements as in the sprint, however, muscle relaxation pauses are made shorter (for a worse supply of oxygen to the muscles), and the duration of work increases to the maximum severity of muscle fatigue ( pain, a sharp decrease in the power of contractions, etc.). At the same time, the point of view that training associated with the maximum accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles is useful for developing endurance at medium distances can be questioned (an excess and prolonged stay of hydrogen ions in muscle fibers leads to the destruction of organelles).

With regard to long distances, the maximum intensification of the respiratory resynthesis of ATP in the muscles is required. It is assumed that when using exercises for the development of strength endurance, such conditions are created when working in hard conditions, but only in cases where the total power does not exceed the level of the anaerobic threshold.

The ratio of the volumes of means for the development of local endurance in the CVS

The clarification of this issue turned out to be the most difficult in the analysis of both generalizing works and methodological recommendations in various sports. The fact is that the calculation of loads in the CVS is traditionally carried out either by the mileage covered by the athlete, or by the time (in hours) that he spent on one or another type of training work. The main components of local endurance should be evaluated according to the parameters of speed, speed-strength, strength training, with the obligatory consideration of which muscles are being trained, the mode of muscle work, the number of approaches, rest intervals, etc. (see above) - on the one hand, and the amount of work in different zones of intensity - on the other. However, in what units can one compare exercises with a barbell, which are widely used in rowing, skating and cycling with classes in the “dry swimming halls” for swimmers, sprinting, jumping and SBU for athletes with classes “OFP” for skiers or “sprint” for swimmers? The only criterion that may have limited information content for specialists who know the content of the concepts that are used in different sports (ORU, OFP, SBU, "special strength", "speed-strength training", "strength training", "strength endurance" and etc.) in one or another CVS is the time spent on different types preparation. Such a specialist, carrying out a mental transformation of the term into specific parameters of the exercise, can guess what exactly the effect of this exercise is aimed at in the human body, and even then only if he has the necessary biological knowledge for this. However, an attempt to reveal these concepts in each of the sports only on the basis of the terms used in the methodological literature led us to the conclusion that at present it is not possible to perform such an analysis in a qualified manner, since everywhere the description of exercises and their classification is based on external (not essential) signs without disclosing the internal (essential) content, which should be understood as the effect on certain organelles of cells involved in the performance or maintenance of muscle activity. However, such practice, as a rule, is absent among specialists in sports theory, who, trying to use terms that are understandable to a wide range of coaches and athletes, neglect, thereby, scientific rigor. In this regard, we, with great regret, are forced to skip the consideration of one of the key issues for the theory of sports training - the ratio of loads of various directions. Relatively reliably, the volumes of such loads were determined by us for track and field athletics and are given in subsequent chapters of the work. Here we present only the most general figures obtained by us in the analysis of training in 6 main cyclic sports, according to which the development of the contractile components of the muscles that determine local endurance (without dividing into training the main and non-main muscle groups and determining the mode of operation in which these muscles are trained ) is spent from 1.5 to 5 hours per week. Most of all - in rowing and swimming, least of all - in running. These figures do not include the time spent on the development of strength endurance, the development of which is understood as a very wide range of exercises - from jumping with a barbell on the shoulders to running on skates with a parachute and weighted cuffs on the legs in athletics. The distribution of loads in the training cycles is given in the following sections.

Distribution of local endurance development means within one session, micro-, meso- and macrocycles and long-term training of athletes

In the preparation of athletes, three levels are distinguished when building an integral system of training: microlevel - building separate training sessions and microcycles; mesolevel - medium cycles (mesocycles) and stages of preparation; macro level - large training cycles and many years of training.

The efficiency of motor potential accumulation and the degree of its implementation in a competitive exercise depend on the rational distribution of the main types of load that stimulate the improvement of local endurance components.

Building a training session

In the training session, there are introductory-preparatory, main and final parts. According to the magnitude of the load, classes are divided into basic and additional. According to the orientation of the applied means and methods - to classes of selective and complex orientation.

In selective training, means and methods are used that affect one or related abilities of an athlete. It has been experimentally shown that in such classes the use of various means of one direction allows you to perform a larger amount of load while maintaining its quality parameters.

In a complex lesson, the main considered types of load: (1) power, (2) speed-strength, (3) on the main bioenergetic components of power endurance are recommended to be distributed in the following options:

1. Alactate - glycolytic - aerobic.

2. Speed ​​- strength - development of endurance.

3. High-speed - development of endurance.

Such a basic scheme for constructing classes with slight variations was included in most of the textbooks and teaching aids we analyzed, so the data of F. P. Suslov and V. B. Gilyazova, who conducted a survey of the leading coaches of the USSR in 6 main cyclic sports, were a big surprise.

Note that a typical case for the empirical approach, when the opinion of coaches, practically illiterate specialists in the field of biochemistry, physiology, biomechanics and sports theory, is offered as a scientific argument in a dispute and proof of the truth.

It was revealed that the specified scheme (in the part where the sequence of strength training and endurance training is determined) is followed only in swimming (first classes in the dry swimming hall, then in the water), despite the fact that an outstanding swimmer coach and a recognized specialist in this sport, D. Councilman, recommended at the beginning a massive effect on aerobic functions, and at the end of the lesson - loads of a speed-strength or power nature. Indeed, endurance is the leading quality in the CVS, therefore, apparently, it is not without expediency to develop it at the beginning of a session, when, as it is believed, for example, bodybuilders have the most effective effect. This is probably why in all other CVS exercises are first used to develop endurance, and then strength. Apparently, modern practice has made adjustments to established ideas. However, with regard to exercises for the development of speed-strength qualities, most coaches prefer their use in the first half of the session and, as a rule, are associated with alactic or glycolytic training.

Building a microcycle

The general rules for constructing microcycles, which are implemented to one degree or another in most CVS, are formulated in a well-known series of works by V. N. Platonov and boil down to the following:

The next lesson with a heavy load should be planned for the phase of supercompensation from the previous one;

Note that the concept of supercompensation does not mean anything, at best, a change in the mass of glycogen in the liver and muscles, from here 2 workouts with a heavy load per week, and how supercompensation of myofibrils and mitochondria occurs. Kapillyarov and others, no one writes and does not take into account.

The next day after applying a heavy load, you should use an additional lesson of a fundamentally different direction, which speeds up recovery;

Note that due to a misunderstanding of the essence of supercompensation, myths arise about the effect of some measures on accelerating recovery, while the rate of glycogen recovery only depends on normal nutrition, and myofibrils on sufficient intake of animal proteins.

The adjacent use of two classes with a significant load, but of different directions, does not significantly increase the recovery time after the first lesson, so you can perform a larger total amount of work.

Recovery occurs most quickly after speed-strength and sprint training, then glycolytic, the longest - up to 5–7 days after exhausting aerobic training. In accordance with this, their number and sequence should be planned.

The combination of two multidirectional training sessions per day allows you to perform a greater total amount of load than the combination of two unidirectional ones, so the first option is more appropriate.

When considering these principles, it should be borne in mind that they are developed on the basis of the results obtained on swimmers using training tools specific to them. At the same time, there are enough examples that they are either not respected or have different time frames in various sports. It is recognized, for example, that after strength training, recovery lasts up to one week. The nature of muscle work in other CVDs can differ significantly from swimming, and this can lead to a change in the leading factors of fatigue and change the recovery time. For example, it is obvious that in such sports as athletics, rowing, speed skating, speed-strength and speed-oriented exercises almost always involve a significant proportion of the eccentric mode of muscle work, which is a significant damaging factor in relation to muscle tissue, which does not happen in the training of swimmers, skiers and, as a rule, cyclists, so the recovery time after this type of exercise can increase significantly. There is also another feature in running. Performing a glycolytic workout involves a fairly large amount of running at high intensity on the track. Probably, as a result of a combination of a mechanical factor (impact loads), a chemical factor (accumulation of hydrogen ions, free radicals) and the maximum activation of the sympatho-adrenal and glucocorticoid systems, such loads are considered the most severe and their use is not recommended more than once a week, even in competitive sports. period of qualified middle-distance runners, and during this week the athlete is practically unable to perform any other load other than aerobic running on soft ground. And vice versa, the modern practice of training in the CVS is well known for the huge volumes of loads, in particular, aerobic orientation, which are used almost every day, including the competitive stage, so the given duration of recovery (5–7 days) either does not correspond to reality or no one uses such training. And the last, most serious remark: the rationality of building a training according to the principles considered above was evaluated by the criterion of a greater or lesser degree of fatigue, a greater or lesser amount of training work, but it is obvious that the only criterion in such cases can be the resulting training effect.

An analysis of the practice of planning microcycles in various CVs showed that with two training sessions, strength-oriented exercises are used more often in the first half of the day, but the rationale for such a construction option training day No. In the microcycle in various sports, the same components of strength abilities are trained from 1 to 7 times. Most often - in skating, swimming and cycling. Most rarely (1-2 times a week) - on the run.

Construction of the mesocycle

The mesocycle is the middle level of the cyclic structure of the training process. Its duration varies within 3-6 weeks. There are retracting, basic, control-preparatory, precompetitive and competitive microcycles.

There is practically no information in the literature that allows revealing the specifics of the organization of the mesocycle in relation to the components of local endurance. There are only general recommendations for the entire training process as a whole.

The mesocycle can include microcycles of a complex or unidirectional nature, affecting, respectively, different or one side of the fitness of athletes.

According to the magnitude of the load, mesocycles are distinguished, in which the summation (imposition) of fatigue from microcycle to microcycle occurs, accompanied by a decrease in working capacity, which increases only after the application of an unloading microcycle. Such mesocycles are used in the training of qualified athletes and are explained by the phenomenon of delayed transformation or long-term delayed training effect (LTTE). In another option, a constant increase in preparedness from microcycle to microcycle can be planned. However most widespread received a 4-week mesocycle, in which a large load is planned for the first microcycle, a slightly smaller one for the second, the largest for the mesocycle for the third, and the fourth microcycle is a recovery one.

Construction of macrocycles

The basic principles of macrocycle planning were laid down quite a long time ago in the works of our leading experts and accepted in the theory and methodology of physical education and sports.

For example, in the transition period and the beginning of the preparatory period, much attention should be paid to the so-called. means of OFP. Then there is a gradual increase in the proportion of more specialized funds contributing to the formation sportswear to the stage of the main starts.

The theoretical substantiation of macrocycle planning in the CVD is also well established and can be expressed as follows: “…respiratory capabilities are the basis for the development of anaerobic, glycolytic capabilities are the basis for the development of the creatine phosphate mechanism…. The sequence of education of various aspects of endurance (in the training cycle) should be as follows: first, respiratory capabilities (“general endurance (”), then glycolytic and, finally, (“alactic”) capabilities .... As for a separate lesson, the reverse is usually expedient here. sequence.". This formula is justified by the fact that with poorly developed aerobic abilities, an athlete will not be able to perform a large amount of glycolytic work due to the slow payment of O 2 -debt. Similarly, with poorly developed glycolytic capabilities, the recovery rate of CrF will be low and the athlete will not be able to exercise fully.

Until the 1980s, this scheme was considered universally recognized. However, later, due to the increase in the total amount of load in the CVS, the stage of "aerobic training" began to show negative aspects, which can be reduced to two points:

- deterioration in the health of athletes, expressed in symptoms of deterioration in the performance of the cardiovascular system, kidneys, liver and immune system;

- a decrease in sprint, speed-strength and power abilities for the competitive stage, which became an obvious brake on achieving record results, especially at sprint and middle distances.

This, in our opinion, was the stimulus for increased interest in the problems of local endurance in recent years. And, in particular, to the issues of planning large training cycles, taking into account the "interests" of the muscular system.

Two main options were proposed to increase the share of strength-oriented exercises in the annual cycle:

1) distributed version, when appropriate funds are used fairly evenly throughout the year; 2) concentrated option. when special stages of strength training are planned, which provide a massive training effect on the body.

It is believed that the distributed option is more suitable for athletes of low and medium qualifications, since "... the dispersion of funds ... over time will not provide a significant training impact on that high level physical fitness at which they are.

Concentrated planning has two main schemes. In the first, more common, stage of power and speed-strength training is planned for the end of the preparatory and the beginning of the pre-competitive stages (with 2-3 cycle planning) to eliminate the negative impact of volumetric training on muscle strength indicators. In the second - at the beginning of the preparatory, in order to create a "reserve" of strength abilities, which then can simply be supported by the use of maintenance training. With regard to the second option, there is an opinion that the stages of applying the load for the development of muscle strength and the stage with the use of speed exercises should be clearly distinguished. This is due to the manifestation of a long-term delayed effect of strength work, the concentrated use of which is always accompanied by a decrease in endurance and speed indicators, which increase at the stage of "implementation" after 1-2 months.

In case of single-cycle planning (in stayer events with a long competitive period), a scheme with two “blocks” of power load was proposed. The first block - at the beginning of the preparatory period, when the use of strength exercises of a general developmental nature is recommended, and the second block - at the end of the preparatory period, in which exercises for "strength endurance", speed-strength and sprint orientation should be used. However, in another part of his work for long-distance runners, taking into account the specifics of these types of athletics, Yu. V. Verkhoshansky recommends a distributed version of the organization of SFP in the preparatory period.

At the same time, it is believed that the fundamental solution to the problem of macrocycle planning lies in the conjugate-sequential organization of loads with different predominant directions. Such an organization of training, according to Yu. V. Verkhoshansky, implements the principle of superposition (when the effect next stage expediently superimposed on the effect of the previous one) and optimally takes into account the requirement of a predominant effect on the neuromuscular apparatus (that is, LP, approx. ours). The meaning of such an organization of training lies in the consistent "introduction into training of loads with gradually increasing strength and the specificity of their training effect on the body." At the same time, this method presupposes the knowledge of what kind of load and how should be imposed on one or another effect from previous work. According to the logic of the cited author, all subsequent loads should be superimposed on the delayed effect of strength training, however, the obvious contradiction with the seemingly recognized opinion that aerobic abilities are “basic” in the CVS is not interpreted in any way, therefore, it is of particular interest to study how macrocycle planning, in particular, in the context of training components of local endurance.

The most representative on this issue is the already cited work of F. P. Suslov and V. B. Gilyazova. Based on a questionnaire survey of the leading coaches of the USSR, these scientists found that the CVS uses both concentrated and distributed use of means aimed at improving local endurance. In cases where the concentrated method is used, maximum strength develops: in cycling, skiing, skating - at the beginning of the preparatory period; in rowing - at the 2nd basic stage; in swimming - on the 2nd basic, in the pre-competitive and competitive periods; in running - at the 2nd basic stage and in the pre-competitive period. Explosive strength: in cycling, rowing, swimming and running - in the pre-competitive and competitive periods; in skating and skiing - in the preparatory period. Strength endurance - in cycling, skiing, rowing and swimming - year-round with a 2–3 month break during the transition period. In skates - in the preparatory and transitional periods. In track and field athletics - at the second basic stage, in the pre-competitive and competitive periods.

The conclusion of the study is noteworthy, in which it was noted that, in the opinion of the leading coaches, they have the least clarity on the issue of organizing strength training, which they, nevertheless, consider one of the key issues of training in the CVS.

Realization of local endurance components in the main competitive exercise

In the absolute majority of cases, specialized training aimed at improving individual components of local endurance involves the use of exercises that differ in their dynamic and kinematic structure from competitive exercises. This forms a motor skill that can adversely affect the coordination of muscle work, thereby worsening the efficiency of work in integral locomotion. In this regard, the sports result may decrease even with an increased motor potential, that is, the implementation efficiency of the technique will worsen. In addition, it is known that "technique, like a suit, is suitable only for the one for whom it is sewn." This figurative expression of D. D. Donskoy emphasizes the conditionality of the exercise technique by the individual characteristics of athletes, in particular, muscle strength and its change in accordance with changes in the latter. However, this "attunement", which is prerequisite efficiency of technology, occurs, firstly, not automatically, and secondly, it takes a certain time. Therefore, when training local endurance, i.e., with a purposeful change in the state of the neuromuscular apparatus, the problem of realizing the motor potential is relevant.

A purposeful study of the literature on this issue made it possible to identify only two methodological approaches to ensure the high implementation efficiency of the technique:

The principle of conjugated action, consistent with the principle of dynamic compliance. This approach involves such a selection of special exercises that would be as close as possible to the competitive one in terms of internal and external structure.

The use of conjugate-sequential organization of loads (see above) in the annual cycle, which involves an increase in the share of specific means (more often the use of locomotion itself with competitive intensity) as we approach the competitive stage. In one form or another, the use of this approach has been suggested by all leading experts in the field of sports training.

In conclusion, I would like to emphasize the following.

The concept of "education of local endurance" in cyclic sports combines the whole range of issues related to the construction of the training process aimed at improving the components of the neuromuscular system of athletes that determine the result in cyclic sports.

Such issues include training of maximum muscle strength, speed-strength abilities, strength endurance in connection with various intensity zones in which competitive distances lie; problems of planning the training process in various training cycles; the problem of the realization of the motor potential of athletes, which increases as a result of local endurance training.

When analyzing the scientific and methodological literature on these issues, attention is drawn, first of all, to the contradiction between the exceptionally large attention that has been paid in the last 10–15 years to muscle training in the CVA and an extremely small number of generalizing works on this problem. Among which we can single out practically only two monographs by Yu. V. Verkhoshansky and a number of our works. In these studies, the problem of education of PE is clearly posed, its relevance is revealed, the analysis of medical and biological aspects associated with muscle training is carried out and, in our opinion, the most significant, on the basis of the modern understanding of the biological laws of the functioning of the neuromuscular apparatus, possible ways building a training process in order to improve this component of athletes' endurance.

It should also be noted that a very large number of biological (especially abroad) and pedagogical (mainly in Russia) experimental studies have been carried out in recent years on individual problems of training the human muscular system. However, their generalization and implementation in the form of a relatively complete concept, on the basis of which it would be possible in the future to create private training technologies in various CVS, as we see it, has not been completed so far. In this regard, the following chapters attempt to summarize the available data and present them in the form of a certain system of views regarding:

The importance of muscle components for endurance in cyclic sports;

Place of LP training in the system of training athletes;

Limiting performance factors in the CVS associated with the muscular system;

Optimal means and methods of training effects on muscle components that determine endurance;

Options for planning a training session, micro-, meso-, macrocycles and long-term training in the CVS from the point of view of educating LP.

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• Introduction
• 1. Classifications of muscle activity
• 1.1.4 Moderate power zone
• 2.1 Physiologicalchanges in heartvascular system
• 3.2 The course of recovery processes in the body of athletes after athletics
• Conclusion
• Bibliography

Introduction

In Russia, there is a classification according to which all sports associated with the manifestation of motor activity are divided into five main groups: speed-strength, cyclic, with complex coordination, sports games and martial arts. The basis of such a division is the common nature of the activity, and, consequently, the common requirements for sports that are part of a particular group.

Cyclic sports are sports with a predominant manifestation of endurance (athletics, swimming, cross-country skiing, speed skating, all types of rowing, cycling and others), characterized by the repetition of the phases of the movements that underlie each cycle, and the close connection of each cycle with subsequent and previous. Cyclic exercises are based on a rhythmic motor reflex, which manifests itself automatically. Cyclic repetition of movements to move your own body in space is the essence of cyclic sports. Thus, the general signs of cyclic exercises are:

1. Multiple repetition of the same cycle, consisting of several phases;

2, All phases of the movement of one cycle are sequentially repeated in another cycle;

3. The last phase of one cycle is the beginning of the first phase of the movement of the next cycle;

During cyclic sports, a large amount of energy is consumed, and the work itself is performed at a high intensity. These sports require metabolic support, specialized nutrition, especially during marathon distances, when energy sources are switched from carbohydrate (macroergic phosphates, glycogen, glucose) to fat. The control of the hormonal system of these types of metabolism is essential both in predicting and in the correction of working capacity with pharmacological preparations. A high result in these sports primarily depends on the functionality of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the body's resistance to hypoxic shifts, and the athlete's volitional ability to resist fatigue.

Athletics- a cyclic sport that combines exercises in walking, running, jumping, throwing and all-around events composed of these types.

The ancient Greek word "athletics" translated into Russian means wrestling, exercise. In ancient Greece, athletes were those who competed in strength and agility. Currently, physically well-developed, strong people are called athletes.

Occupations by cyclic sports have a very versatile effect on the human body. They contribute to the uniform development of muscles, train and strengthen the cardiovascular, respiratory and nervous systems, the musculoskeletal system, and increase metabolism. Also, track and field exercises develop strength, speed, endurance, improve mobility in the joints, and contribute to the hardening of the body. The basis of light athletics are natural human movements. The popularity and mass character of athletics are explained by the general availability and wide variety of athletics exercises, the simplicity of the execution technique, the ability to vary the load and conduct classes at any time of the year, not only on sports grounds but also in natural conditions. The healing value of athletics is enhanced by the fact that they are mostly held outdoors.

The purpose of the work: To reveal the main physiological characteristics of cyclic sports on the example of athletics. Show the effect of cyclic sports on the human body.

1. Classifications of muscular activity

In cyclic sports, any muscle activity can be carried out, and almost all muscle groups are involved in it. There are a large number of classifications of types of muscle activity. For example, muscle work is divided into static, in which muscle contraction occurs, but no movement occurs, and dynamic, in which both muscle contraction and movement of body parts relative to each other occur. Static work is more tiring for the body and muscles compared to dynamic work of the same intensity and duration, since during static work there is no phase of muscle relaxation, during which the reserves of substances spent on muscle contraction can be replenished.

According to the number of muscle groups included in the work, motor activity is divided into work of a local, regional and global nature. When working locally, less than one third of the muscle mass (usually small muscle groups) is involved in the activity. This is, for example, work with one hand or brushes. During the work of a regional nature, one large or several small muscle groups are included in the activity. This, for example, is work only with the hands or only with the legs (in athletics, these can be various exercises for technique). During the work of a global nature, more than two-thirds of the muscles of the total muscle mass take part in the activity. The work of a global nature includes all kinds of sports of a cyclic nature - walking, running, swimming (practically all muscles work during these types of motor activity).

The greater the percentage of muscle mass involved in the work, the Big changes such work causes in the body, and therefore, the training effect is higher. Therefore, strength exercises for individual muscle groups, of course, will help increase the strength of these muscles, but will practically not affect the activity of other organs (heart, lungs, blood vessels, organs of the immune system).

All the following classifications of physical exercises imply that the body performs work of a global nature.

One of the most well-known classifications of physical exercises is their division according to the predominant source of energy for muscle contraction. In the human body, the breakdown of substances with the formation of energy can take place with the participation of oxygen (aerobically) and without the participation of oxygen (anaerobically).

In reality, during muscular work, both variants of the breakdown of substances are observed, however, one of them, as a rule, predominates.

According to the predominance of one or another method of decomposition of substances, aerobic work is distinguished, the energy supply of which occurs mainly due to the oxygen decomposition of substances, anaerobic work, the energy supply of which occurs mainly due to the oxygen-free decomposition of substances, and mixed work, in which it is difficult to distinguish the predominant method of decomposition of substances.

An example of aerobic work is any low-intensity activity that can last for a long time. Including our daily movements. It is generally accepted that an aerobic load is one that is carried out within the pulse range of 140-160 beats per minute. Training in this mode is fully provided with the necessary amount of oxygen, in other words, the athlete can provide his body with the amount of oxygen that is necessary to perform a particular exercise. Doing exercises in the zone aerobic exercise does not lead to the accumulation of oxygen debt and the appearance of lactic acid (lactate) in the athlete's muscles. In cyclic sports, examples of such work are long walking, long continuous running (eg jogging), long cycling, long rowing, long skiing, skating, and so on.

An example of anaerobic work is an activity that can only last for a short time (from 10-20 seconds to 3-5 minutes). Anaerobic load - exercises performed with a pulse of 180 beats / min. and higher. At the same time, every athlete knows what muscle clogging is, but not everyone understands how this is explained. But in fact, this is an anaerobic lactate load, that is, the implementation of a training program with the accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles. A similar "clogging" of the muscles gives lactic acid accumulated during anaerobic exercises. And the very reason for the appearance of lactate is very simple. When working with near-maximal and ultimate loads, the body cannot be fully provided with all the oxygen it needs, so the breakdown of proteins and carbohydrates (fats are involved to a minimum) occurs in an oxygen-free mode, which leads to the formation of lactic acid and some other decay products. This is, for example, running short distances at top speed, swimming short distances at top speed, cycling or rowing short distances at top speed.

Intermediate activities that may last more than 5 but less than 30 minutes of continuous activity are an example of a mixed (oxygen-free) type of energy supply.

When they pronounce the term "aerobic" or "anaerobic work", they mean that the whole organism, and not individual muscles, perceives this work this way. In this case, individual muscles can work both in the oxygen energy supply mode (non-working or taking little part in the activity, for example, facial muscles), and in the oxygen-free energy supply mode (performing the greatest load in this type of activity).

Another common classification of physical exercises is the division of muscle work into power zones.

1.1 The power of the work performed and the energy supply of muscle contraction

Physical exercises are performed with different speed and external weights. The intensity of physiological functions (intensity of functioning), estimated by the magnitude of the shifts from the initial level, changes in this case. Consequently, but the relative power of the work of a cyclic nature (measured in W or kJ / min) can also be judged on the real physiological load on the athlete's body.

Of course, the degree of physiological load is associated not only with measurable, amenable to accurate accounting indicators of physical activity. It also depends on the initial functional state of the athlete's body, on the level of his training and on environmental conditions. For example, the same physical activity at sea level and at high altitudes will cause different physiological changes. In other words, if the power of work is measured accurately enough and is well dosed, then the magnitude of the physiological changes it causes cannot be accurately quantified. It is also difficult to predict the physiological load without taking into account the current functional state of the athlete's body.

Physiological assessment of adaptive changes in an athlete's body is impossible without their correlation with the severity (tension) of muscle work. These indicators are taken into account when classifying physical exercises according to the physiological load on individual systems and the body as a whole, as well as the relative power of the work performed by the athlete.

Cyclic exercises differ from each other in terms of the power of the work performed by athletes. According to the classification developed by V.S. Farfel, one should distinguish between cyclic exercises: maximum power, in which the duration of work does not exceed 20-30 seconds (sprint running up to 200 m, cycle track up to 200 m, swimming up to 50 m, etc.); submaximal power, lasting 3-5 minutes (running 1500 m, swimming 400 m, round on the track up to 1000 m, skating up to 3000 m, rowing up to 5 minutes, etc.); high power, the possible execution time of which is limited to 30 - 40 minutes (running up to 10,000 m, cycle track, cycling up to 50 km, swimming 800 m - women, 1500 m - men, race walking up to 5 km, etc.), and moderate power which an athlete can hold from 30-40 minutes to several hours (road cycling, marathon and ultramarathon runs, etc.).

The power criterion underlying the classification of cyclic exercises proposed by V.S. Farfel (1949), is very relative, as the author himself points out. Indeed, a master of sports swims 400 meters faster than four minutes, which corresponds to the zone of submaximal power, while a beginner swims this distance in 6 minutes or more, i.e. actually performs work related to the zone of high power.

Despite a certain schematic division of cyclic work into 4 power zones, it is quite justified, since each of the zones has a certain effect on the body and has its own distinctive physiological manifestations. At the same time, each power zone is characterized by general patterns of functional changes that have little to do with the specifics of various cyclic exercises. This makes it possible, by assessing the power of work, to create a general idea of ​​the effect of the corresponding loads on the athlete's body.

Many functional changes characteristic of different work power zones are largely related to the course of energy transformations in working muscles.

Energy supply for muscle contraction

So, any kind of physical activity requires the expenditure of a certain amount of energy.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the only direct energy source for muscle contraction. The reserves of ATP in the muscle are insignificant and they are enough to provide several muscle contractions for only 0.5 seconds. When ATP is broken down, adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is formed. In order for muscle contraction to continue, it is necessary to constantly restore ATP at the same rate as it is broken down.

Restoration of ATP during muscle contraction can be carried out due to reactions that take place without oxygen (anaerobic), as well as due to oxidative processes in cells associated with oxygen consumption (aerobic). As soon as the level of ATP in the muscle begins to decrease, and ADP - to increase, the creatine phosphate source of ATP recovery is immediately connected.

The creatine phosphate source is the fastest way to restore ATP, which occurs without access to oxygen (anaerobic way). It provides instant recovery of ATP due to another high-energy compound - creatine phosphate (CrP). The content of CrF in the muscles is 3-4 times higher than the concentration of ATP. Compared to other sources of ATP recovery, the CRF source has the highest power, so it plays a decisive role in the energy supply of short-term muscle contractions of an explosive nature. Such work continues until the reserves of CRF in the muscles are significantly depleted. This takes about 6-10 seconds. The rate of CrF splitting in working muscles is directly dependent on the intensity of the exercise or the magnitude of muscle tension.

Only after the reserves of CrF in the muscles are exhausted by about 1/3 (it takes about 5-6 seconds), the rate of ATP recovery due to CrF begins to decrease, and the next source, glycolysis, begins to connect to the ATP recovery process. This happens with an increase in the duration of work: by 30 seconds, the reaction rate decreases by half, and by the 3rd minute it is only about 1.5% of the initial value.

The glycolytic source ensures the restoration of ATP and CRF due to the anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates - glycogen and glucose. In the process of glycolysis, intramuscular glycogen stores and glucose entering the cells from the blood are broken down to lactic acid. The formation of lactic acid - the end product of glycolysis - occurs only under anaerobic conditions, but glycolysis can also be carried out in the presence of oxygen, but in this case it ends at the stage of formation of pyruvic acid. Glycolysis maintains a given exercise power from 30 seconds to 2.5 minutes.

The duration of the ATP recovery period due to glycolysis is not limited by glycogen and glucose reserves, but by the concentration of lactic acid and the athlete's willpower. The accumulation of lactic acid during anaerobic work is directly dependent on the power and duration of the exercise.

The oxidative (oxidative) source ensures the reduction of ATP under conditions of continuous oxygen supply to the mitochondria of cells and uses long-term energy sources. Such as carbohydrates (glycogen and glucose), amino acids, fats delivered to the muscle cell through the capillary network. The maximum power of the aerobic process depends on the rate of oxygen uptake in the cells and on the rate of oxygen supply to the tissues.

The largest number of mitochondria (centers of "assimilation" of oxygen) is observed in slowly contracting muscle fibers. The higher the percentage of such drags in the muscles that carry the load during the exercise, the greater the maximum aerobic power of the athletes and the higher the level of their achievements in long-term exercises. Preferential recovery of ATP due to an oxidizing source begins during exercise, the duration of which exceeds 6-7 minutes

The energy supply of muscle contraction is the determining factor for the allocation of 4 power zones.

1.1.1 Maximum power zone

This power of work is characterized by the achievement of the maximum physical capacity of the athlete. Its implementation requires maximum mobilization of energy supply in the skeletal muscles, which is associated exclusively with anaerobic processes. Almost all work is carried out due to the breakdown of macroergs and only partially - glycogenolysis, since it is known that already the first muscle contractions are accompanied by the formation of lactic acid in them.

The duration of work, for example, in running 100 meters is less than the time of the blood circulation. This already indicates the impossibility of sufficient oxygen supply to the working muscles.

Due to the short duration of work, the development of vegetative systems practically does not have time to complete. We can only talk about the full development of the muscular system in terms of locomotor indicators (increase in speed, pace and stride length after the start).

Due to the short time of work, functional shifts in the body are small, and some of them increase after the finish.

The work of maximum power causes minor changes in the composition of blood and urine. There is a short-term increase in the content of lactic acid in the blood (up to 70-100 mg%), a slight increase in the percentage of hemoglobin due to the release of deposited blood into the general circulation, and a slight increase in sugar content. The latter is due more to the emotional background (prelaunch state) than to the physical activity itself. Traces of protein may be found in the urine. The heart rate after the finish reaches 150-170 or more beats per minute, arterial pressure rises to 150-180 mm. rt. Art.

Breathing at maximum power increases slightly, but increases significantly after the end of the load as a result of a large oxygen debt. So, pulmonary ventilation after the finish can increase to 40 or more liters per minute.

The amount of oxygen demand reaches the limit values, reaching up to 40 liters. However, this is not its absolute value, but calculated per minute, i.e. for a time exceeding the ability of the organism to perform the work of this capacity. At the end of work, due to the large oxygen debt that has arisen, the functions of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems remain enhanced for some time. For example, gas exchange after running sprint distances returns to normal after 30-40 minutes. During this time, the restoration of many other functions and processes is mainly completed.

1.1.2 Zone of submaximal work power

In contrast to the work of maximum power, with this longer load, there is a sharp increase in blood circulation and respiration. This ensures that a significant amount of oxygen is delivered to the muscles at the time of execution. physical work. Oxygen consumption reaches by the end of 3-5 minutes of operation the limit values ​​or values ​​close to them. (5-6 liters per minute). The minute volume of blood increases to 25-30 liters. However, despite this, the oxygen demand in this power zone is much greater than the actual oxygen consumption. It reaches 25-26 l / min. Consequently, the absolute value of the oxygen debt reaches 20 or more liters, i.e. maximum possible values. These figures indicate that during the work of submaximal power in the body, although to a lesser extent than during sprint distances, anaerobic processes in the release of energy prevail over aerobic ones. As a result of intensive glycogenolysis in the muscles, a large amount of lactic acid accumulates in the blood. In the blood, its content reaches 250 mg% or more, which causes a sharp shift in blood pH to the acid side (up to 7.0-6.9). The sharp shifts in the acid-base balance in the blood are accompanied by an increase in the osmotic pressure in it, as a result of the transfer of water from the plasma to the muscles and its loss during sweating. All this creates during work unfavorable conditions for the activity of the central nervous system and muscles, causing a decrease in their performance.

A characteristic of this power zone is that some functional shifts increase throughout the entire period of work, reaching limiting values ​​(lactic acid content in the blood, a decrease in the alkaline reserve of blood, oxygen debt, etc.).

The heart rate reaches 190-220 mm Hg. Art., pulmonary ventilation increases to 140-160 l / min. After working with submaximal power, functional shifts in the body are eliminated within 2-3 hours. Blood pressure recovers faster. Heart rate and gas exchange rates normalize later.

1.1.3 High power zone

In this work power zone, which lasts 30-40 minutes, in all cases the working-in period is completely completed, and many functional indicators then stabilize at the achieved level, holding on to it until the finish.

The heart rate after working out is 170-190 beats per minute, the minute volume of blood is in the range of 30-35 liters, pulmonary ventilation is set at 140-180 liters per minute. Thus, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems work at the limit (or almost at the limit) of their capabilities. However, the power of work in this zone somewhat exceeds the level of aerobic energy supply. And although oxygen consumption can increase during this work up to 5-6 liters per minute, the oxygen supply still exceeds these figures, as a result of which there is a gradual increase in oxygen debt, especially noticeable towards the end of the distance. Stabilization of indicators of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems with a relatively small oxygen debt (10-15% of the oxygen demand) is designated as an apparent (false) steady state. Due to the increase in the proportion of aerobic processes during high power work, slightly smaller changes are observed in the blood of athletes than during submaximal power work. Thus, the content of lactic acid reaches 200-220 mg%, the pH shifts to 7.1-7.0. A somewhat lower content of lactic acid in the blood during high power work is also associated with its excretion by the excretory organs (kidneys and sweat glands). The activity of the circulatory and respiratory organs is increased for a long time after the end of the work of high power. It takes at least 5-6 hours to be eliminated oxygen debt and restored homeostasis.

1. 1.4 Moderate power zone

A characteristic feature of the dynamic operation of moderate power is the onset of a true steady state. It is understood as an equal ratio between oxygen demand and oxygen consumption. Consequently, the release of energy here occurs mainly due to the oxidation of glycogen in the muscles. In addition, only in this zone of work power, due to its duration, lipids are a source of energy. The oxidation of proteins in the energy supply of muscle activity is also not excluded. Therefore, the respiratory coefficient for marathon runners immediately after the finish (or at the end of the distance) is usually less than one.

The values ​​of oxygen consumption at ultra-long distances are always set below their maximum value (at the level of 70-80%). Functional shifts in the cardiorespiratory system are noticeably less than those observed during high power operation. The heart rate usually does not exceed 150-170 beats per minute, the minute volume of blood is 15-20 liters, pulmonary ventilation is 50-60 l / minute. The content of lactic acid in the blood at the beginning of work increases markedly, reaching 80-100 mg%, and then approaches the norm. Characteristic of this power zone is the onset of hypoglycemia, which usually develops after 30-40 minutes from the start of work, in which the blood sugar content by the end of the distance can decrease to 50-60 mg%. There is also a pronounced leukocytosis with the appearance of immature forms of leukocytes in 1 cubic meter. mm can reach up to 25-30 thousand.

The function of the cortical layer of the adrenal glands is essential for the high performance of athletes. Short-term intense physical activity causes an increased production of glucocorticoids. When working at moderate power, apparently due to its long duration, after the initial increase, the production of these hormones is inhibited (A. Viru). Moreover, in less trained athletes, this reaction is especially pronounced.

It should be noted that in case of violations of the uniformity of running marathon distances or during climbing work, oxygen consumption lags somewhat behind the increased oxygen demand and a small oxygen debt arises, which is paid off when switching to a constant power of work. Oxygen debt in marathon runners also usually occurs at the end of the distance, due to the finish acceleration. When working at moderate power, due to profuse sweating, the body loses a lot of water and salts, which can lead to violations of the water-salt balance and a decrease in efficiency. Increased gas exchange after this work is observed for many hours. Restoration of the normal leukocyte formula and working capacity lasts several days.

2. Physiological changes in the body under the influence of cyclic sports

2.1 Physiological changes in the cardiovascular system

The heart is the main center of the circulatory system. As a result of physical training, the size and mass of the heart increases due to the thickening of the walls of the heart muscle and an increase in its volume, which increases the power and performance of the heart muscle.

With regular exercise or sports:

the number of red blood cells and the amount of hemoglobin in them increase, as a result of which the oxygen capacity of the blood increases;

increases the body's resistance to colds and infectious diseases, due to increased activity of leukocytes;

recovery processes are accelerated after a significant loss of blood.

Indicators of the performance of the heart.

An important indicator of the health of the heart is the systolic blood volume (CO) - the amount of blood pushed out by one ventricle of the heart into the vascular bed with one contraction.

Another informative indicator of the health of the heart is the number of heartbeats (HR) (arterial pulse).

During sports training, heart rate at rest becomes less frequent over time due to an increase in the power of each heartbeat.

Indicators of the number of heartbeats. (bpm)

Trained body	Untrained body

The heart of an untrained person, in order to provide the necessary minute volume of blood (the amount of blood ejected by one ventricle of the heart during a minute), is forced to contract with a greater frequency, since it has a lower systolic volume.

The heart of a trained person is more often penetrated by blood vessels, in such a heart the nutrition of muscle tissue is better carried out and the working capacity of the heart has time to recover during pauses in the cardiac cycle. Schematically, the cardiac cycle can be divided into 3 phases: atrial systole (0.1 s), ventricular systole (0.3 s) and a total pause (0.4 s). Even if we conditionally assume that these parts are equal in time, then the rest pause for an untrained person at a heart rate of 80 bpm will be equal to 0.25 s, and for a trained person at a heart rate of 60 bpm, the rest pause increases to 0.33 s . This means that the heart of a trained person in each cycle of its work has more time for rest and recovery.

Blood pressure is the pressure of blood inside blood vessels against their walls. They measure blood pressure in the brachial artery, so it is called blood pressure (BP), which is a very informative indicator of the state of the cardiovascular system and the whole organism.

Distinguish between the maximum (systolic) blood pressure, which is created during systole (contraction) of the left ventricle of the heart, and the minimum (diastolic) blood pressure, which is noted at the time of its diastole (relaxation). Pulse pressure (pulse amplitude) - the difference between the maximum and minimum blood pressure. Pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).

Normally, for student age at rest, the maximum blood pressure is in the range of 100-130; minimum - 65-85, pulse pressure - 40-45 mm Hg. Art.

Pulse pressure during physical work increases, its decrease is an unfavorable indicator (observed in untrained people). The decrease in pressure may be due to a weakening of the activity of the heart or excessive narrowing of the peripheral blood vessels.

State	BP in humans
	trained	untrained
intensive physical	The maximum blood pressure rises to 200 ml Hg. Art. and more, can hold on for a long time.	Maximum BP at first rises to 200 ml Hg. Art., then decreases as a result of fatigue of the heart muscle. There may be fainting.
After work	trained	untrained
	The maximum and minimum blood pressure quickly returns to normal.	The maximum and minimum blood pressure remain elevated for a long time.

A complete circulation of blood through the vascular system at rest is carried out in 21-22 seconds, during physical work - 8 seconds or less, which leads to an increase in the supply of body tissues with nutrients and oxygen.

Physical work contributes to the general expansion of blood vessels, normalization of the tone of their muscle walls, improved nutrition and increased metabolism in the walls of blood vessels. During the work of the muscles surrounding the vessels, the walls of the vessels are massaged. Blood vessels passing through the muscles (brain, internal organs, skin) are massaged due to the hydrodynamic wave from the increased pulse and due to the accelerated blood flow. All this contributes to the preservation of the elasticity of the walls of blood vessels and normal functioning. cardiovascular systems s without pathological abnormalities.

A particularly beneficial effect on blood vessels is provided by cyclical types of exercise: running, swimming, skiing, skating, cycling.

2.2 Physiological changes in the respiratory system

During exercise, O2 consumption and CO2 production increase on average 15-20 times. At the same time, ventilation is increased and the tissues of the body receive the required amount of O2, and CO2 is excreted from the body.

Indicators of the health of the respiratory system are respiratory volume, respiratory rate, vital capacity, pulmonary ventilation, oxygen demand, oxygen consumption, oxygen debt, etc.

Tidal volume - the amount of air passing through the lungs during one respiratory cycle (inhalation, exhalation, respiratory pause). The value of the respiratory volume is directly dependent on the degree of training to physical activity and fluctuates at rest from 350 to 800 ml. At rest, in untrained people, the tidal volume is at the level of 350-500 ml, in trained people - 800 ml or more. With intensive physical work, the respiratory volume can increase up to 2500 ml.

Respiratory rate - the number of respiratory cycles in 1 min. The average respiratory rate in untrained people at rest is 16-20 cycles per 1 minute, in trained people, due to an increase in tidal volume, the respiratory rate decreases to 8-12 cycles per 1 minute. In women, the respiratory rate is 1-2 cycles higher. At sports activities the respiratory rate in skiers and runners increases to 20-28 cycles per 1 minute, in swimmers - 36-45; there were cases of an increase in the respiratory rate up to 75 cycles per 1 min.

Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air that a person can exhale after a full breath (measured by spirometry). The average values ​​of the vital capacity of the lungs: for untrained men - 3500 ml, for women - 3000; in trained men - 4700 ml, in women - 3500. When doing cyclic endurance sports (rowing, swimming, skiing, etc.), the vital capacity of the lungs can reach 7000 ml or more in men, in women - 5000 ml or more.

Pulmonary ventilation is the volume of air that passes through the lungs in 1 minute. Pulmonary ventilation is determined by multiplying the tidal volume by the respiratory rate. Pulmonary ventilation at rest is at the level of 5000-9000 ml (5-9 l). During physical work, this volume reaches 50 liters. The maximum rate can reach 187.5 liters with a tidal volume of 2.5 liters and a respiratory rate of 75 respiratory cycles per 1 minute.

Oxygen request - the amount of oxygen needed by the body to ensure vital processes in various conditions of rest or work in 1 min. At rest, the average oxygen demand is 200-300 ml. When running for 5 km, for example, it increases by 20 times and becomes equal to 5000-6000 ml. When running 100 meters in 12 seconds, when converted to 1 minute, the oxygen demand increases to 7000 ml.

The total, or total, oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen needed to do all the work. At rest, a person consumes 250-300 ml of oxygen per minute. With muscular work, this value increases.

The maximum amount of oxygen that the body can consume per minute during a certain amount of muscular work is called maximum oxygen consumption (MOC). BMD depends on the state of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the oxygen capacity of the blood, the activity of the metabolic processes and other factors.

For each person, there is an individual MIC limit, above which oxygen consumption is impossible. In people who are not involved in sports, the IPC is 2.0-3.5 l / min, in male athletes it can reach 6 l / min or more, in women - 4 l / min or more. The value of the IPC characterizes the functional state of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, the degree of fitness of the body for long-term physical exertion. The absolute value of the IPC also depends on the size of the body, therefore, to determine it more accurately, the relative IPC per 1 kg of body weight is calculated. For an optimal level of health, it is necessary to have the ability to consume oxygen per 1 kg of body weight: for women, at least 42, for men, at least 50 ml.

Oxygen debt - the difference between the oxygen demand and the amount of oxygen consumed during work in 1 minute. For example, when running 5000 m in 14 minutes, the oxygen demand is 7 l/min, and the limit (ceiling) of the MPC for this athlete is 5.3 l/min; consequently, an oxygen debt equal to 1.7 liters of oxygen arises in the body every minute, i.e. the amount of oxygen that is necessary for the oxidation of metabolic products accumulated during physical work.

With prolonged intensive work, a total oxygen debt arises, which is eliminated after the end of work. The amount of the maximum possible total debt has a limit (ceiling). In untrained people, it is at the level of 4-7 liters of oxygen, in trained people it can reach 20-22 liters.

Physical training contributes to the adaptation of tissues to hypoxia (lack of oxygen), increases the ability of body cells to work intensively with a lack of oxygen.

The respiratory system is the only internal system that a person can control arbitrarily. Therefore, the following recommendations can be made:

a) breathing must be carried out through the nose, and only in cases of intense physical work is it allowed to breathe simultaneously through the nose and a narrow slit of the mouth formed by the tongue and palate. With such breathing, the air is cleaned of dust, moistened and warmed before entering the lung cavity, which helps to increase the efficiency of breathing and keep the airways healthy;

b) when performing physical exercises, it is necessary to regulate breathing:

in all cases of straightening the body, take a breath;

when bending the body, exhale;

during cyclic movements, the rhythm of breathing should be adapted to the rhythm of movement with an emphasis on exhalation. For example, when running, inhale for 4 steps, exhale for 5-6 steps, or inhale for 3 steps and exhale for 4-5 steps, etc.

avoid frequent breath holding and straining, which leads to stagnation of venous blood in the peripheral vessels.

The most effective respiratory function is developed by physical cyclic exercises with the inclusion of a large number of muscle groups in the work under conditions clean air(swimming, rowing, skiing, running, etc.).

2.3 Physiological changes in the musculoskeletal system

Skeletal muscles are the main apparatus by which physical exercise. Well-developed muscles are a reliable support for the skeleton. For example, with pathological curvatures of the spine, deformities of the chest (and the reason for this is weakness of the back muscles and shoulder girdle) the work of the lungs and heart is hampered, the blood supply to the brain is deteriorating, etc. Trained back muscles strengthen the spinal table, unload it, taking part of the load on themselves, prevent "falling out" of the intervertebral discs, slipping of the vertebrae.

Exercises in cyclic sports act on the body comprehensively. So, under their influence, significant changes occur in the muscles.

If the muscles are doomed to a long rest, they begin to weaken, become flabby, decrease in volume. Systematic athletics contribute to their strengthening. At the same time, muscle growth occurs not due to an increase in their length, but due to a thickening of muscle fibers. Muscle strength depends not only on their volume, but also on the strength of nerve impulses entering the muscles from the central nervous system. In a trained, constantly exercising person, these impulses cause the muscles to contract with greater force than in an untrained person.

Under the influence of physical activity, the muscles not only stretch better, but also become harder. Muscle hardness is explained, on the one hand, by the growth of the protoplasm of muscle cells and intercellular connective tissue, and on the other hand, by the state of muscle tone.

Track and field athletics contribute to better nutrition and blood supply to the muscles. It is known that under physical stress not only the lumen of the countless smallest vessels (capillaries) penetrating the muscles expands, but their number also increases. So, in the muscles of people involved in athletics, the number of capillaries is much greater than in untrained people, and, therefore, they have better blood circulation in the tissues and brain. More I.M. Sechenov, a well-known Russian physiologist, pointed out the importance of muscle movements for the development of brain activity.

As mentioned above, under the influence of physical activity, such qualities as strength, speed, endurance develop.

Strength grows better and faster than other qualities. At the same time, muscle fibers increase in diameter, energy substances and proteins accumulate in them in large quantities, muscle mass is growing.

Regular physical exercises with weights (classes with dumbbells, barbells, physical labor associated with lifting weights) quickly increase dynamic strength. Moreover, strength develops well not only in young age, and older people have a greater ability to develop it.

Cyclic training also contributes to the development and strengthening of bones, tendons and ligaments. Bones become stronger and more massive, tendons and ligaments are strong and elastic. The thickness of the tubular bones increases due to new layers of bone tissue produced by the periosteum, the production of which increases with increasing physical activity. More calcium, phosphorus, and nutrients accumulate in the bones. But the stronger the skeleton, the more reliably protected internal organs from external damage.

The increasing ability of muscles to stretch and the increased elasticity of the ligaments improve movements, increase their amplitude, and expand the possibilities of human adaptation to various physical work.

2.4 Physiological changes in the nervous system

When systematically engaged in cyclic sports, the blood supply to the brain improves, general state nervous system at all its levels. At the same time, great strength, mobility and balance of nervous processes are noted, since the processes of excitation and inhibition, which form the basis of the physiological activity of the brain, are normalized. The most useful sports are swimming, skiing, skating, cycling, tennis.

In the absence of the necessary muscle activity, undesirable changes in the functions of the brain and sensory systems occur, the level of functioning of subcortical formations responsible for the work of, for example, sensory organs (hearing, balance, taste) or in charge of vital functions (respiration, digestion, blood supply) decreases. As a result, there is a decrease in the overall defenses of the body, an increase in the risk of various diseases. In such cases, instability of mood, sleep disturbance, impatience, weakening of self-control are characteristic.

Physical training has a versatile effect on mental functions, ensuring their activity and stability. It has been established that the stability of attention, perception, memory is directly dependent on the level of versatile physical fitness.

The main property of the nervous system, which can be taken into account when selecting for cyclic sports, is balance. It is believed that the longer the distance, the less the requirements for the strength of nervous processes, and the more - for balance.

The main processes that occur in the nervous system during intense physical activity:

Formation in the brain of a model of the final result of activity.

Formation in the brain of a program of future behavior.

Generation in the brain of nerve impulses that trigger muscle contraction, and their transmission to the muscles.

Management of changes in systems that provide muscle activity and are not involved in muscle work.

Perception of information about how muscle contraction occurs, the work of other organs, how the environment changes.

Analysis of information coming from the structures of the body and the environment.

Making corrections to the behavior program, if necessary, generating and sending new executive commands to the muscles.

2.5 Physiological changes in the metabolism of the body and in the endocrine glands

Moderate physical activity has a beneficial effect on the metabolic processes in the body.

Protein metabolism in athletes is characterized by a positive nitrogen balance, that is, the amount of nitrogen consumed (mainly nitrogen is found in proteins) exceeds the amount of nitrogen excreted. Negative nitrogen balance is observed during illness, weight loss, metabolic disorders. In people involved in sports, proteins are used mainly for the development of muscles and bones. While in untrained people - for energy (in this case, a number of substances harmful to the body are released).

The metabolism of fats in athletes is accelerated. Much more fat is used during physical activity, hence less fat is stored under the skin. Regular athletics reduces the amount of so-called atherogenic lipids, which lead to the development of severe blood vessel disease - atherosclerosis.

The metabolism of carbohydrates during cyclic sports is accelerated. Wherein carbohydrates(glucose, fructose) are used for energy rather than being stored as fat. Moderate muscle activity restores tissue sensitivity to glucose and prevents the development of type 2 diabetes. To perform fast power movements (lifting weights), carbohydrates are mainly spent, but during prolonged light loads (for example, walking or slow running), - fats.

Endocrine glands

Changes in the activity of the endocrine glands during cyclic sports depend on the nature of the work performed, its duration and intensity. In any case, these changes are aimed at ensuring maximum performance of the body.

Even if the body has not yet begun to perform muscular work, but is preparing for its implementation (the state of the athlete before the start), changes in the activity of the endocrine glands characteristic of the start of work are observed in the body.

Changes with significant muscle loads

Change in hormone secretion	Physiological effect
Increased secretion of adrenaline and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla.	The excitability of the nervous system increases, the frequency and strength of heart contractions increase, the respiratory rate increases, the bronchi expand, the blood vessels of the muscles, brain, heart expand, the blood vessels of non-working organs narrow (skin, kidneys, digestive tract, etc.), the rate of decay of substances increases releasing energy for muscle contraction.
Increased secretion of growth hormone (somatotropic hormone) from the pituitary gland	The breakdown of fats in adipose tissue is enhanced, and their use as an energy source for muscle contraction is facilitated. Facilitates the absorption of nutrients by cells.
The secretion of the pituitary hormone, which stimulates the activity of the adrenal cortex (adrenocorticotropic hormone), increases.	The secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex increases.
Increased secretion of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids of the adrenal cortex.	Under the influence of glucocorticoids, the rate of formation of carbohydrates in the liver and the release of carbohydrates from the liver into the bloodstream increase. From the blood, carbohydrates can enter the working muscles, providing them with energy. Under the influence of mineralocorticoids, water and sodium are retained in the body and the excretion of potassium from the body increases, which protects the body from dehydration and maintains the ionic balance of the internal environment.
Increased secretion of vasopressin from the posterior pituitary gland.	The blood vessels (non-working organs) constrict, providing an additional reserve of blood for working muscles. Reduces the excretion of water by the kidneys, which prevents the body from dehydration.
Increased secretion of glucagon by intrasecretory cells of the pancreas.	It facilitates the breakdown of carbohydrates and fats in cells, the release of carbohydrates and fats from their storage sites into the blood, from where they can be used by muscle cells as an energy source.
The secretion of the gonadotropic hormone of the pituitary gland (the hormone that regulates the activity of the gonads) is reduced.	The activity of the sex glands decreases.
Decreased secretion of sex hormones from the gonads power load testosterone levels may increase, especially during the recovery period).
The release of analogs of sex hormones of the adrenal cortex decreases.	The specific action of sex hormones decreases.
The secretion of insulin by intrasecretory cells of the pancreas decreases.	The deposition of carbohydrates in the reserve is blocked, which facilitates their use as an energy source for muscle contraction.

Changes in the activity of other endocrine glands are insignificant or insufficiently studied.

3. Characteristics of fatigue and recovery processes in cyclic sports

3.1 Physiological and biochemical basis of fatigue during athletics

The problem of fatigue is considered an actual general biological problem, is of great theoretical interest and is of great practical importance for the activity of a person involved in athletics. The question of the correct interpretation of the process of fatigue has long been debatable. Now it is considered as a state of the body that occurs as a result of physical work and manifests itself in a temporary decrease in efficiency, in the deterioration of motor and autonomic functions, their discoordination and the appearance of a feeling of fatigue.

As studies of recent decades have shown, the structure of a particular muscle is made up of different functional features and organization of activity. motor units(DE), which, like muscle fibers, have their own functional differences. P. E. Burke (1975) proposed to divide the DU based on a combination of two properties - the speed of contraction and resistance to fatigue. He proposed four types of DU (Table 1).

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