Training load power. Training load

29.11.201927.05.2017

Are you stuck in your training progress, in a state of “stagnation”, or worse, overtired or overtrained? The most common advice you will receive from a coach or more experienced training buddy is: “Change your training program.” Moreover, the argumentation, most likely, will be quite vague: “muscles need variety,” “the body needs a shake-up,” etc. What kind of variety, what exactly - in the weight of the weight, time under load, number of approaches, exercises? How much, why, why? You will rarely hear an accurate, physiologically based answer.

Often a change training program lies in the fact that the athlete, instead of “bicep curls with dumbbells while sitting,” begins to do “concentrated curls,” instead of “French bench press” - “ French press standing" etc. Has the athlete changed his program? No! If the main characteristics of the training load of these two programs have not changed, then, in fact, this is the same program.

What are these characteristics? Let's take a closer look at them.

Training loads are determined by the following indicators:

a) intensity of training;

b) volume of training;

c) the nature of the exercises.

Please note that the definition of such characteristics as the volume and intensity of the load will differ from the definitions adopted in certain sports.

So, in order.

Load intensity

Intensity is an integral characteristic that reflects both the magnitude of the external load (the so-called “external” intensity) and the degree of human effort in overcoming it (the “internal” intensity). It is important to keep in mind that "external" intensity is objective and is closely related to the power developed during the exercise. The more power an athlete develops, the greater the intensity of his workout.

Power is the amount of work performed per unit of time. Power can be defined as work (F d) divided by the amount of time (Dt) or as the product of force (F) and speed (v). Work is a quantity that characterizes how much an object can be displaced in a certain direction when a force is applied.

"Internal" intensity- subjective, to a large extent it depends on the psychophysical abilities of a person. For example, when explaining the impossibility of continuing to perform the last repetition by the onset of a state of “failure,” two different athletes may attach completely different meanings to this concept, reflecting significantly different magnitudes of their efforts when performing this repetition.

Let's look at examples of manifestation various types intensity

Let's say an athlete performs a bench press exercise with a 100 kg barbell for 6 reps in one workout, and a 90 kg barbell for 12 reps in another workout. The pace, speed and other kinematic indicators are the same. However, the athlete was able to perform 6 repetitions with a weight of 100 kg quite easily, while 12 repetitions with a weight of 90 kg were performed “to failure”, using one “forced” repetition. The “external” intensity of the load will be greater in the first workout, and the “internal” intensity in the second.

However, in most cases these characteristics coincide, which allows the use of relatively individual training sessions or periods of the training process, simply the term "intensity".

Load volume- a characteristic associated with the work (U) performed by a person to overcome external resistance or counteract it, as well as with the energy (E) expended by him in demonstrating strength abilities for this work. It is believed that the work done by the system is equal to the change in energy in the system, i.e. doing work requires energy. The relationship between work and energy can be written as

Doing 15 reps with a 80kg barbell will be a higher volume load than doing 6 reps of 120kg squats, but less intense. An example of the manifestation of the maximum volume load would be marathon competitions, and manifestations of the maximum intense load would be weightlifting competitions.

In most cases, the characteristics “volume” and “intensity” in relation to an individual training session are at different poles. Typically, at various periods of macro- or mesocycles, either high-volume and low-intensity training, or low-volume and high-intensity training, or training with a different volume-to-intensity ratio is used. Training that is both voluminous and intense is used only for a fairly limited period of time, within the so-called. “shock” microcycles, putting an extremely stressful load on the athlete’s body and forcing him to train during this period in conditions of under-recovery.

Let's look at examples of increasing intensity and volume when training with weights.

The intensity increases with:

Increasing the weight of the burden.
Approaching the state of “failure” in the last repetitions of the approach.
Reducing the pause between approaches.
Increasing the speed of movement ("external" intensity) or, sometimes, decreasing it ("internal" intensity).
Application of various techniques(“forced repetitions”, “cheating”, “weight reduction method”, “supersets”, etc.)

Volume increases when:

Increasing the number of repetitions in a separate approach.
Increasing the number of approaches per exercise.
Increasing the number of exercises for a particular muscle group.

| edit code ] is the muscular work performed by an athlete during training, weekly, monthly, semi-annual and annual cycles. The main parameters of the training load are:

volume of physical activity - for example, an athlete performs squats with a weight of 80 kg 10 times in 5 approaches. The load volume in one approach will be: 80kgX10=800 kg. It must be borne in mind that when the amplitude of movement is shortened, the volume of load decreases proportionally.
intensity or working weight
speed or execution time

Managing the specificity of the training impact of the load is the only way to increase the effectiveness of the training system for high-class athletes (Verkhoshansky, 1988).

In order to choose the optimal training load option that would correspond to a given stage of training, it is necessary to first evaluate its effectiveness. When assessing, one should proceed from the characteristics that primarily determine the qualitative and quantitative measure of the impact of the training load on the athlete’s body, such as its content, volume, intensity and organization.

Fixation of the load volume consists, first of all, in a systematic and long-term disruption of the body's homeostasis, stimulating the mobilization of its energy resources and plastic reserve. The volume function can be correctly determined if the magnitude of the load, its duration and intensity are taken into account (Verkhoshansky, 1988).

Training load intensity(according to Verkhoshansky, 1985) is a criterion of the strength of its impact on the body or a measure of the tension of training work. The intensity is regulated by the magnitude (strength) of the training potential of the means used, the frequency of their use, and the rest intervals between repeated loads. Increasing the intensity of the training load is allowed at certain stages of preparation and only after preliminary training based on a volumetric low-intensity load.

The training load organization system includes the ratio of general, special and technical training means in strict coordination with the time of the preparation stage.

In the theory and methodology of sports, the term “training load” is usually a quantitative measure of the training work performed. It is customary to distinguish between the following concepts: external, internal and psychological load (Matveev, 1999; Ozolin, 1980; Tumanyan, 1984, etc.). Viru (1981) identifies 5 types of loads: overly large(near limit); supportive(insufficient to ensure further growth, but sufficient to avoid reverse development of training); restorative(insufficient to maintain the proper level, but accelerating recovery); small, which do not have a noticeable physiological effect. Subsequently, the need arose to expand the understanding of external and internal load. Concepts such as the training potential (TP) of the load and its training effect (TE) were introduced.

The training potential of the load includes the presence in its composition not only corresponding, but also exceeding the competitive conditions in terms of the values of maximum effort, the time of its development and the power of metabolic processes that ensure the performance of athletes (Verkhoshansky, 1988).

In general, this comes down to a linear representation and summation of training influences:

urgent TE -> delayed TE -> cumulative TE.

The acute training effect is the body's current response to physical activity; delayed training effect is a change in the state of the body observed after a training session; The cumulative training effect is the result of the body’s sequential summation of all TEs created during the training process.

The results of the impact of the load are expressed in its total training effect, assessed, first of all, by the magnitude of changes in the athlete’s condition.

In his studies, Yu. V. Verkhoshansky (1985), for example, highlights the qualitative aspects of TE. According to him, cumulation as a phenomenon of the body’s generalization of traces of training influences is not simple summation and goes far beyond its scope. “Partial TE” is identified - the result of exposure to a load of one predominant direction or one means, and “cumulative TE” - the result of the body’s generalization of the effects of loads of different predominant directions, applied simultaneously or sequentially.

Obviously, the effect of training an athlete largely depends on the correct organization of the training process, where you need to clearly understand what TE should be expected in each specific case and what needs to be done to achieve it. IN practical purposes the training effect is assessed according to two criteria - temporary (urgent and delayed) and qualitative (partial and cumulative).

The classification of fuel cells can be more detailed. The physiological nature of TE is so complex, and the forms of manifestation are so diverse that its comprehensive description is possible only on the basis of knowledge of the characteristics of TE, its content and organization in educational training process. Cumulation can be momentary (the body’s reaction to one training task), cumulative (the body’s reaction to training influences of various directions over long stages of preparation), and finally, positive or negative. Under the influence of physical activity, changes occur in the body. Sports training in fact, it is a means of changing the conditions of existence of an organism, designed to achieve certain adaptive changes in it. The physiological meaning of the body’s adaptation to external and internal influences is to maintain homeostasis and, accordingly, the viability of the body in almost any conditions to which it is able to adequately respond (Pavlov, 1999).

The body's quantitative and qualitative responses to environmental changes depend, first of all, on its initial state, the strength and specific qualities of the environmental change (impact).

The initial state of the athlete is determined, on the one hand, by his genetic potential, on the other hand, the realization of this potential depending on the previous conditions of his life (including, among other things, the direction of previously applied training loads).

The initial state should be assessed not only at the beginning of any stage of preparation, but also before each training session and during it, in order to determine the level and direction of changes occurring during the training process, and further planning and correction of the educational and training process.

One of the tasks is to choose the form of constructing an educational and training session according to organizational characteristics. A common form of training is complex, involving the simultaneous and parallel solution of a number of training tasks and the use of loads of a primary focus. The complex form, depending on the tasks and the stage of preparation, has its positive and negative aspects. Thus, volumetric complex loads, providing for simultaneous improvement sports equipment and special physical fitness can lead to general functional fatigue. But if the above amounts of work have any predominant influence, then this can be avoided. In conditions of increased volumes and intensity of loads, it is difficult to differentiate their effect on specialized sensations. The solution, according to Yu.V. Verkhoshansky (1977), should be sought in “... the rational use of loads of one training orientation, both in a separate lesson and at the stage of one or another orientation.”

In the practice of training highly qualified athletes, a special form of concentrating the volume of loads has been developed - concentrating it at certain stages of training.

The fundamental novelty of this technique lies in the creation of a massive training effect on the athlete’s body using a high volume of unidirectional loads during a time-limited (up to 2 months) stage. Based on the concept of preparing the Ukrainian national team for the Olympic Games, a program is being developed, part of which is the improvement and development of the speed-strength qualities of the muscles involved in the striking movements of boxers at the general preparatory stage preparatory period. We are talking about concentrated unidirectional loads (hereinafter we will refer to the experience of preparing the Ukrainian national team for the 1996-2008 Olympic Games).

The most important condition when using concentrated loads is the relatively low intensity of the means, since their frequent use in itself leads to an intensification of the training process. A load can be considered practically concentrated if its volume in the month in which it is concentrated is 23-25% of the total annual load (Verkhoshansky, 1977). Taking a concentrated load is advisable, first of all, to increase the level of TPP, and for this purpose loads of any primary direction can be used, but the concentration of specialized power loads is of particular importance. Taking concentrated power load It also has disadvantages. It leads to a temporary but sustainable decrease in speed and strength indicators, which negatively affects the athlete’s special performance and complicates the solution of problems related to improvement technical skill and speed of movement. According to Filimonov (1989), a negative effect of volumetric power loads on the speed of boxers’ strikes has been established. Therefore, concentrated load should be used carefully and, mainly, at the “distant” stages of preparation for competitions. main idea this method designed for long-term delayed training effect (DOTE). The DOTE effect was developed by a group of scientists led by Yu. V. Verkhoshansky. Below we present the main features of long-term adaptation of training for elite athletes.

The main provisions of the DOTE effect include (Verkhoshansky, 1985):

the main condition for obtaining the DOTE effect is a concentrated, i.e., volumetric power load concentrated at a time-limited stage, providing the possibility of an in-depth unidirectional training effect on the athlete’s body;

the formation of DOFC includes two phases: in the first, the conditions for its occurrence are created, in the second, its implementation occurs;

the more strongly (within optimal limits) the speed-strength indicators are reduced at the stage of concentration of the power load, the higher their subsequent increase in the implementation phase;

the means used in training should not be intense;

the implementation of DOTE concentrated power load is facilitated by moderate in volume general developmental work, combined with work of a special nature;

The duration of manifestation of DOTE is determined by the volume and duration of application of concentrated power load. In principle, the sustained manifestation of DOTE is equal in duration to the stage of strength work. In real conditions of training of highly qualified athletes, this tendency is observed with the duration of the stage strength training from 4 weeks or more (up to 12);

During the period of implementation of DOTE, athletes easily tolerate intense loads, but react negatively to volumetric work. Intense and short-term strength work can be used in a small volume as a means of toning the neuromuscular system in preparation for competitions, as well as to maintain the achieved level of speed-strength training.

Now you know what power is, a power meter and why you should use power data during training. Surely you still have a question about how to train for power. And in this short article we will talk about this.

First of all, after installing and calibrating the power meter, you need to pass the FTP test. FTP (Functional Threshold Power) is a functional threshold power, which is often called functional power, threshold power, or FTP for short. FTP is the maximum average power you can sustain for an hour. Roughly speaking, this is the maximum number of watts you can handle for an hour. Using your FTP reading, you can calculate individual power training zones (we'll cover this in a separate article), as well as personalize any training plans that are based on power readings.

FTP is the maximum average power you can sustain for an hour. FTP (Functional Threshold Power) is a functional threshold power, which is often called functional power, threshold power, or FTP for short.

Any power training is based on the FTP percentage profile. Thus, a 10-minute warm-up could consist of gradually increasing power from 50% FTP to 80% FTP. Assuming that your FTP is 200 Watts, then for the first 10 minutes you should gradually increase the load from 100 Watts to 160 Watts. Thus, using your personal FTP indicator you can easily adapt any training plan according to your level of preparation.

How to find out your FTP level (FPM)

Given that you already have a power meter installed and calibrated on your bike, you'll need to take a simple 20-minute test.

This test is best considered as a separate workout. A minimum of 2 days of rest is required to fully recover before testing. Warm up well and get ready for 20 minutes of cutting at the highest possible intensity. Distribute your strength in such a way as to maintain a constant, maximum possible intensity for 20 minutes. After a good warm-up, hit the lap cutoff while on the move to begin the 20-minute test and ride as hard as you can for those 20 minutes. You shouldn’t go all out at the very beginning of the segment: distribute your strength over 20 minutes, in increasing order. It is best when the peak power occurs in the last 5 minutes. Take a good rest after completing the 20-minute segment and take readings from the bike computer. The FTP value can be calculated as the average power over this 20 minute period multiplied by an error of 0.95. The resulting figure will be very close to the real FTP value. For example, your average power over a 20-minute segment was 250 watts. This means your FTP is 237 Watts.

1. Warm up well and get ready for a 20-minute cutting session at the highest possible intensity; 2. Complete the 20-minute FTP test.

Well, if you are the proud owner of an exercise bike, then download the Trainer Road software and take your training to a whole new level. For just $12 per month ($99 per year) you get full access to power-based workouts and plans. Among them you will find three FTP test options: 2x8 minutes, 20 minutes and 2x20 minutes.

When talking about power, you can often hear the opinion that power meters are designed for professional athletes . Indeed, it is not easy to find a professional racer without a meter these days, but we are convinced that power meter equally relevant for athletes amateurs who have very limited time to train.

Training with a power meter is the right way avoid any waste (extra) work. Aimless cycling affects fitness within a very limited range and generally does not improve athletic performance. If for a number of reasons you are limited in time (work, family, personal life, finally), you simply need to get rid of any junk training.

Many amateur athletes who started training for power note that while using one heart rate sensor they were just riding, but after using a power meter they began to really train.

So, you've passed the FTP test and found out your performance, what next? We have already written a short Action plan, we will publish it again:

Take the FTP test
We have already dealt with this (see above).
Consult a specialist
Any modern professional trainer will confirm the effectiveness of using power when creating an individual training plan.
Define your goal
Even if your goal is simply cycling, power data will help you distribute your efforts more effectively, which will make your ride much more enjoyable. But if the goal is a specific race, using power data can help you reach peak fitness for the big race.
Select a program for collecting and analyzing workouts
There are many programs that allow you to accumulate data from your workouts. Many programs, for exampleStrava analyzes your power data in an easy-to-understand way, giving you information about your training and recovery needs. And special software Trainer Road allows you to choose an individual training plan to achieve your goals. It is also effective and several times cheaper than training in special cycling studios.
Take action

During training loads, energy supply to working muscles is carried out in three ways, depending on the intensity of work: 1) combustion (oxidation) of carbohydrates (glycogen) and fats with the participation of oxygen - aerobic energy supply; 2) breakdown of glycogen - anaerobic-glycolytic energy supply 3) breakdown of creatine phosphate. In sports theory and sports practice, the following classification of training loads is accepted, depending on their intensity and the nature of physiological changes in the athlete’s body when performing the corresponding load:

1st intensity zone – aerobic recovery (“background loads”: warm-up, cool-down, recovery exercises);

2nd intensity zone – aerobic developmental;

3rd intensity zone – mixed aerobic-anaerobic;

4th intensity zone – anaerobic-glycolytic;

The 5th intensity zone is anaerobic-alactate.

Let's look at each intensity zone in more detail.

First intensity zone. Aerobic recovery. Training loads in this intensity zone are used as a means of recovery after training with large and significant loads, after competitions, and in the transition period. The so-called “background loads” also correspond to this zone.

The intensity of the exercises performed is moderate (near the threshold of aerobic metabolism). Heart rate (HR) – 130-140 beats per minute (bpm). The concentration of lactic acid in the blood (lactate) is up to 2-3 millimoles per liter (Mm/l). The level of oxygen consumption is 50-60% of MOC (maximum oxygen consumption). Duration of work is from 20-30 minutes to 1 hour. The main sources of energy (biochemical substrates) are carbohydrates (glycogen) and fats.

Second zone of intensity. Aerobic developing. The training load in this intensity zone is used for long duration exercises. with moderate intensity. Such work is necessary to increase the functionality of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, as well as to raise the level of overall performance.

Intensity of exercises performed – up to the threshold of anaerobic metabolism, that is, the concentration of lactic acid in muscles and blood - up to 20 mm/l.; Heart rate – 140-160 beats/min. Oxygen consumption level is from 60 to 80% of MIC.

Movement speed in cyclic exercises is 50-80% of maximum speed(on a segment lasting 3-4 seconds, covered on the move at the maximum possible speed in this exercise). Bioenergetic substance – glycogen.

When performing training loads in this intensity zone, continuous and interval methods. Duration of work during training load continuous method is up to 2-3 hours or more. To increase the level of aerobic capacity, continuous work with uniform and variable speed.

Continuous work with variable intensity involves alternating a low-intensity segment (heart rate 140-145 beats/min.) and an intense segment (heart rate 160-170 beats/min.).

Using the interval method, the duration of individual exercises can be from 1-2 minutes. up to 8-10 min. The intensity of individual exercises can be determined by heart rate (by the end of the exercise, the heart rate should be 160-170 beats/min.). The duration of rest intervals is also regulated by heart rate (by the end of the rest pause, heart rate should be 120-130 beats/min.). The use of the interval method is very effective for increasing the ability to quickly develop the functionality of the circulatory and respiratory systems. This is explained by the fact that the method of conducting interval training involves frequent replacement of intense work with passive rest. Therefore, during one lesson, the activity of the circulatory and respiratory systems is repeatedly “turned on” and activated to near-limit values, which helps to shorten the process of working out.

The continuous training method helps to improve the functionality of the oxygen transport system and improve blood supply to the muscles. The use of a continuous method ensures the development of the ability to maintain high levels of oxygen consumption for a long time.

Third zone of intensity. Mixed aerobic-anaerobic. The intensity of the exercises performed should be higher than the threshold rate of anaerobic metabolism (TART), heart rate - 160-180 beats/min. The concentration of lactic acid in the blood (lactate) is up to 10-12 m-m/l. The oxygen consumption level is approaching the maximum oxygen consumption (VO2). The speed of performing cyclic exercises is 85-90% of the maximum speed. The main bioenergetic substance is glycogen (its oxidation and breakdown).

When performing work in this zone, along with the maximum intensification of aerobic productivity, there is a significant intensification of the anaerobic-glycolytic mechanisms of energy production.

Basic training methods: continuous method with uniform and variable intensity and interval method. When performing work using the interval method, the duration of individual exercises ranges from 1-2 minutes. up to 6-8 min. Rest intervals are regulated by heart rate (at the end of the rest pause, heart rate is 120 beats/min.) or up to 2-3 minutes. The duration of work in one lesson is up to 1-1.5 hours.

Fourth intensity zone. Anaerobic-glycolytic. The intensity of the exercises performed is 90-95% of the maximum available. Heart rate over 180 beats/min. The concentration of lactic acid in the blood reaches maximum values - up to 20 mm/l. and more.

Exercises aimed at increasing the capacity of glycolysis should be performed at high oxygen debt.

The following technique helps solve this problem: performing exercises with submaximal intensity with incomplete or reduced rest intervals, during which the next exercise is performed against the background of insufficient recovery of operational performance.

Performing exercises in this intensity zone can only be interval (or interval-serial). The duration of individual exercises is from 30 seconds to 2-3 minutes. Rest pauses are incomplete or shortened (40-60 seconds).

The total amount of work in one lesson is up to 40-50 minutes. The main bioenergetic substance is muscle glycogen.

Fifth intensity zone. Anaerobic-alactate.

To increase anaerobic-alactate capabilities (speed, speed abilities) exercises lasting from 3 to 15 seconds are used with maximum intensity. Heart rate indicators in this intensity zone are not informative, since in 15 seconds the cardiovascular and respiratory system cannot reach even their near-maximal operational performance.

Speed abilities are mostly limited by the power and capacity of the creatine phosphate mechanism. The concentration of lactic acid in the blood is low - 5-8 mm/l. The main bioenergetic substance is creatine phosphate.

When performing exercises in this intensity zone, despite the short duration of the exercises (up to 15 seconds), rest intervals should be sufficient to restore creatine phosphate in the muscles (full rest intervals). The duration of rest pauses, depending on the duration of the exercise, ranges from 1.5 to 2-3 minutes.

Training work should be performed serially at intervals: 2-4 series, 4-5 repetitions in each series. Between series, the rest should be longer - 5-8 minutes, which is filled with low-intensity work. The need for a longer rest between series is explained by the fact that the reserves of creatine phosphate in the muscles are small and by the 5th-6th repetition they are largely exhausted, and during a longer rest between series they are restored.

The duration of training work in one lesson in this intensity zone is up to 40-50 minutes.

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Training load and indicators characterizing it

1. Physical activity as a quantitative and qualitative measure of the exercises (means) used by the cyclist

Load is impact physical exercise on the athlete’s body, causing an active reaction of his functional systems, transferring the body to more high level its energy capabilities.

Classification of loads in sports:

They are divided into training, competitive, specific and non-specific;

By size - small, medium, significant or (near limit) and large (or limit);

Focused on promoting improvement motor abilities(speed, strength, coordination, endurance, flexibility) or their components (for example, alactic or lactate anaerobic capabilities), improving the coordination structure of movements, components of mental preparedness, tactical skill;

By coordination complexity - those associated with performing movements of high coordination complexity;

According to mental tension - depending on the requirements for the mental capabilities of the athlete - more intense and less intense.

Loads are also distinguished according to their belonging to one or another structural formation of the training process.

In particular, one should distinguish between the loads of individual training and competitive exercises or their complexes, the loads of training sessions, days, the total loads of micro and mesocycles, periods and stages of preparation, macrocycles, and a training year.

The magnitude of training and competitive loads can be characterized from the “external” and “internal” sides.

The “external” side of the load is at its most general view can be represented by indicators of the total (quantitative) amount of work. These include: the total volume of work in hours, the volume of cyclic work (number of sessions, duration in kilometers and hours, number of repetitions, riding speed, pedaling rate, gear size, etc.) To fully characterize the “external” side of the training load, partial volumes are identified loads reflecting planning in the total volume of work performed with increased intensity or contributing to the primary improvement of individual aspects of preparedness. To do this, determine, for example, the percentage of work intensity in its total volume, the ratio of work aimed at developing individual qualities and abilities, means of general and special training etc. To assess the “external” side of the load of cyclists, indicators of its intensity are widely used. The measure of intensity is energy expenditure per unit time, that is, power. Different intensity of covering distance segments can mobilize one or another energy generation pathways.

A low load is ensured by performing work equal to 20-25% of the volume of work at a high load. The criterion for low load is the coordinated activity of the musculoskeletal system, functional systems of the body and autonomic nervous system, that is, the formation of a stable state of performance.

The average load is characterized by work constituting 40-50% of the volume of work at a heavy load, performed until signs of a violation of the steady state of the body appear.

A significant load is characterized by work in a steady state, in which there is no decrease in performance. The work is 70-75% of the work volume under heavy load. The criterion for significant load is the appearance of persistent signs of compensated fatigue.

Heavy load refers to developmental loads, which are characterized by pronounced functional changes in the athlete’s body and cause a sharp decrease in performance, cause a significant level of fatigue, and the inability of the athlete to continue working in a given mode. Such loads on the integral impact on the body can be expressed in terms of 100 and 80%. The recovery period of the involved functional systems is 48-96 and 24-48 hours, respectively. To create a heavy load, the athlete should be given a volume of work that corresponds to his level of preparedness. The criterion for a heavy load is the athlete’s inability to continue working in a given mode. The amount of training load is a derivative of the intensity and volume of work. Their increase can occur simultaneously up to a certain point. Subsequently, an increase in intensity leads to a decrease in volume and, conversely, an increase in the volume of work entails a forced decrease in its intensity. The volume of training load in a session usually refers to the duration and total amount of work performed during a separate training session.

2. Indicators characterizing the “external” and “internal” sides of the load

Objective indicators for assessing external load are skin color, concentration, facial expressions, quality of task performance, mood, general well-being.

However, the load is most fully characterized with “ inside", i.e. according to the body’s reaction to the work performed, according to the degree of mobilization of the functional systems of the cyclist’s body when performing work and are characterized by the magnitude of physiological, biochemical and other changes in the functional state of organs and systems caused by it.

Based on this principle, in practice there are five zones of training loads.

1st zone - aerobic recovery zone. The immediate training effect is associated with an increase in heart rate to 140-145 beats/min. Oxygen consumption reaches 40-70% of MIC. Energy is provided through the oxidation of fats (50% or more), muscle glycogen and blood glucose. Blood lactate does not exceed 2 mmol/l. The work is provided by slow-twitch muscle fibers (SMF). Work in this zone takes from several minutes to several hours. It stimulates recovery processes and improves aerobic abilities (general endurance).

The 2nd zone is aerobically developing. The immediate training effect is associated with an increase in heart rate to 160-175 beats/min. Blood lactate is up to 4 mmol/l, oxygen consumption from MIC is 60-90%. Energy is provided through the oxidation of carbohydrates (muscle glycogen and glucose). The work is provided by slow muscle fibers (SMF) and fast muscle fibers (FMF) of type “a”, capable of oxidizing lactate to a lesser extent; it increases from 2 to 4 mmol/l. The load stimulates the development of special endurance, strength endurance. This area is typical for road racing.

3rd zone - mixed aerobic-anaerobic. The immediate training effect in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate to 180-185 beats/min, blood lactate to 8-10 mmol/l, oxygen consumption 80-100% of MIC. The work is ensured by slow and fast muscle fibers of type “b”, which are not able to oxidize lactate, its content in the muscles and blood increases, which reflexively causes an increase in pulmonary ventilation and the formation oxygen debt. This area is typical for team road racing. Competitive activity in this mode can last up to 1.5-2 hours.

The 4th zone is anaerobic-glycolytic. The immediate training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in blood lactate from 10 to 20 mmol/l. Heart rate is at the level of 180-200 beats/min. Oxygen consumption is reduced from 100 to 80% of MIC. Energy is provided by carbohydrates. Work is done by all three types of muscle units. Training activity does not exceed 10-15 minutes. Competitive activity in this zone lasts from 20 s. up to 6--10 min. This zone is typical in individual and team pursuit races. The main method is the method of integral intensive exercise. Scope of work in different types sports ranges from 2 to 7%.

The 5th zone is anaerobic-alactate. The work is short-term, does not exceed 15-20 s. in one repetition. Blood lactate, heart rate and pulmonary ventilation do not have time to reach high levels. Oxygen consumption drops significantly. Energy supply occurs anaerobically due to the use of ATP and CP, after 10 s. Glycolysis begins to join the energy supply, and lactate accumulates in the muscles. Work is provided by all types of muscle units. Total training activity does not exceed 120-150 s. for one training session. It stimulates the development of speed, speed-strength, and maximum strength abilities. This zone is typical for training sprinters. The amount of work in different sports is from 1 to 5%.

External and internal characteristics of the load are closely interrelated: an increase in the volume and intensity of training work leads to increased shifts in the functional state of various systems and organs, to the emergence and deepening of fatigue processes, and a slowdown in recovery processes. It is quite difficult to assess the total volume and intensity of the load in the annual cycle, in a training session and in a training exercise as a whole. But still, these parameters are measurable, and they can be planned and assessed.

The training process also includes rational rest, during which recovery from stress occurs and the effect of stress is optimized. The duration of rest periods between distance segments is considered to be integral part training load, which largely determines its direction. The duration of rest periods is set taking into account the speed of recovery after the work performed and the tasks set by the trainer in the lesson.

Within one lesson, three types of intervals should be distinguished:

Full (ordinary) intervals, guaranteeing by the time of the next repetition practically the same restoration of performance that was before its previous execution.

Stressful (incomplete) intervals, during which the next load falls into a state of some under-recovery of performance.

- “Minimax” interval is the shortest rest interval between exercises, after which increased performance (supercompensation) is observed, which occurs under certain conditions.

During passive rest, the athlete does not perform any work,

when active, fills pauses with additional activity. Rationally organized rest ensures restoration of performance after training loads and serves as one of the means of optimizing the effect of loads and long-term adaptation of the body to training loads. In track training, passive rest is predominantly used, and in the training process of road racers, it is rarely used. As active recreation It is advisable to use cycling or other low-intensity work.

In order to correctly construct the training process, it is necessary to know what effect training and competitive loads, varying in magnitude and direction, have on the athlete’s body, what the dynamics and duration of the recovery processes after them are.

Considering the fact that, according to many sports specialists, the reserves for increasing training loads in cycling When applied to road racing, coaches therefore have to find methods that selectively target the development of those qualities of a cyclist that he needs to achieve maximum results, taking into account his individual abilities. The load, even if its structure is homogeneous, can cause various internal changes in the body. This depends on individual performance at the time of training and environmental conditions: air temperature and humidity, wind strength and direction, route profile and surface, altitude above sea level, quality of equipment, sportswear.

In cases where the modern organizational and methodological concept of training high-class athletes assumes mandatory condition the use of several training sessions during one day with different loads, it is necessary to know and take into account the patterns of fluctuations functional state organism and the physiological mechanisms that cause these fluctuations.

4. Load components and their influence on the formation of adaptation reactions

Considering the features of immediate and long-term adaptation in connection with the nature of the exercises used, it is necessary to point out the unequal adaptive reactions of the body when using exercises that involve different volumes of the muscle mass. For example, when performing long-term exercises of a local nature, involving less than 1/3 of the muscles, the athlete’s performance depends little on the capabilities of the oxygen transport system, but is determined primarily by the capabilities of the oxygen utilization system. Because of this, such exercises lead to specific changes in the muscles associated with an increase in the number and density of functioning capillaries, an increase in the number and density of mitochondria, as well as their ability to use oxygen transported by the blood for the synthesis of ATP (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980). The effect of local exercises especially increases if you use methodological techniques or technical means that increase the load on workers muscle groups(Platonov, 1984).

The use of partial exercises, involving up to 40-60% of the muscle mass, provides a broader impact on the athlete’s body, ranging from increasing the capabilities of individual systems (for example, the oxygen transport system) and ending with achieving optimal coordination of motor and autonomic functions in the context of the use of training and competitive loads.

However, the most powerful impact on the athlete’s body is exerted by exercises of a global nature, involving over 60-70% of the muscle mass. It should be taken into account that central adaptive changes, for example, endocrine or thermoregulatory functions, as well as heart muscles, depend only on the volume of functioning muscles and are not related to their localization.

An important point in ensuring effective adaptation is the compliance of the exercises used with the requirements of effective competitive activity of a particular sport. Inconsistency between the nature of the exercises and the given direction of adaptation muscle tissue leads to changes in their metabolism that are inadequate to specialization, which is confirmed by data from electron microscopic and histochemical studies. In particular, in individuals who have a muscle tissue structure characteristic of sprinters, but train and perform as stayers, an expansion of interfibrillar spaces is noted in the muscle fibers, due to swelling and destruction of individual myofibrils, their longitudinal splitting, depletion of glycogen reserves, and destruction of mitochondria. The result of such training is often necrosis muscle fibers. This fully applies to the disciplines of cycling - BMX and track, where the use of a large volume of aerobic training is unacceptable.

In individuals with a stayer's structure of muscle tissue, but who train and perform as sprinters, excessive hypertrophy of a number of myofibrils is observed in the muscle fibers, zones of destruction are noted, covering

1-3 sarcomeres of muscle fibers, individual fibers are in a state of pronounced contracture, etc. (Sergeev, Yazvikov, 1984).

The characteristics of urgent adaptation reactions also depend on the degree of mastery of the exercises used. Adaptation of the athlete's body to standard loads associated with solving known motor tasks is accompanied by smaller shifts in the activity of the supporting system compared to those where the motor task is probabilistic in nature. A more pronounced reaction to such loads is associated with increased emotional arousal, less effective intra- and intermuscular coordination, as well as coordination of motor and autonomic functions (Berger, 1994, Platonov, 1997).

Considering the intensity of work as the degree of intensity of the activity of the functional system of the body, ensuring the effective implementation of a specific exercise, it should be noted that it has an extremely large influence on the nature of energy supply, the involvement of various motor units, formation of a coordination structure of movements that meets the requirements of effective competitive activity.

Rice. 1 Relationship between cycling speed and 0 2 consumption among skilled road cyclists (Rugh, 1974)

From the results of studies (Rugh, 1974) conducted with the participation of qualified road cyclists (Fig. 1.), we see that if an increase in speed from 10 to 20 km/h leads to an increase in V0 2 by 8 ml-kg-min ., then with an increase in speed from 30 to 40 km/h, i.e. also by 10 km, VO 2 increases by 17 ml/kg/min. This is valid not only for work of a dynamic, but also of a static nature. It has been established (Ahiborg et al., 1972) that static power work to a certain degree of tension is provided by aerobic energy sources. The maximum content of lactate and pyruvate is found when working to the point of exhaustion if the voltage value fluctuates within 30-60% of the maximum static force. When using stresses of less than 15% of the maximum static force, there was no increase in the amount of lactate and pyruvate, i.e., the work was performed entirely from aerobic energy sources.

Thus, the selection of work intensity predetermines the nature of urgent and long-term adaptive reactions of the energy supply system. For example, with different intensity of local exercises involving small volumes of muscle mass, a fundamentally different increase in peripheral (local) endurance is noted. The smallest training effect is observed when working with high intensity, which is due to the activation of large volumes of BS fibers and a short duration of work. Reducing the intensity of work and at the same time sharply increasing its duration help to increase the effectiveness of training. This is of fundamental importance for choosing optimal training means aimed at increasing peripheral endurance.

Loads within 90% of V0 2 max and above are largely associated with the inclusion of anaerobic energy sources in the work and involve the BS fibers of the muscles, which is confirmed by the elimination of glycogen from them. If the intensity of the load does not exceed PANO, then the work uses mainly MS muscle fibers, which is decisive for the development of endurance for long-term work (Henriksson, 1992; Mohan et al., 2001), as shown in Fig. 2. This is exactly what the authors of the works (Reindell, Roskamm, Gerschler, 1962) did not take into account, where the interval method with “impact” pauses was recommended as the most effective for increasing aerobic performance. Such training primarily affects the BS fibers and is significantly less effective for the MS muscle fibers compared to continuous training. Moreover, the higher the intensity of work at interval training, the more anaerobic (alactate and lactate) abilities are improved and the less aerobic ones are improved. The interval method, equally increasing the aerobic capabilities of all types of fibers and at the same time helping to increase the anaerobic capabilities of BS fibers, is inferior to the continuous method in terms of the effectiveness of improving aerobic performance. Reducing the volume of work along with increasing the amount of lactate during interval training negatively affects its effectiveness, since it is known that high intracellular concentrations of lactate can impair the structure and function of mitochondria.

When determining the optimal level of work intensity aimed at increasing aerobic capacity, it is necessary to ensure that high values of cardiac output and systolic volume are ensured as the most important factors optimization of adaptive reactions in all parts of the oxygen transport system (see Fig. 3.)

Rice. 2. Regional distribution of blood flow at rest and during exercise of varying intensity (Mohan et al., 2001)

To a large extent, the features of adaptation depend on the duration of the exercises, their total number in the programs of individual classes or a series of classes, and rest intervals between exercises. The need for strict planning and control of these load components to achieve the desired adaptation effect is evidenced by the following. To increase alactic anaerobic capabilities associated with an increase in reserves of high-energy phosphorus compounds, the most acceptable are short-term loads (5 - 10 s) of maximum intensity.

Rice. 3. Volume of the left ventricle of the heart at rest and during physical exercise of varying intensity (Poliner et al., 1980)

Significant pauses (up to 2-3 minutes) allow you to restore high-energy phosphates and avoid significant activation of glycolysis when performing subsequent portions of work. However, it should be taken into account that such loads, while ensuring maximum activation of alactic energy sources, are not capable of leading to more than 50% depletion of alactic energy depots in muscles. The almost complete depletion of alactic anaerobic sources during exercise, and therefore an increase in the reserves of high-energy phosphates, results from work of maximum intensity for 60-90 s, i.e. work that is highly effective for improving the process of glycolysis (Di Prampero, DiLimas, Sassi, 1980).

Considering that the maximum formation of lactate is usually observed after 40-45 s, and work mainly due to glycolysis usually lasts for 60-90 s, it is work of this duration that is used to increase glycolytic capabilities.

Rice. 4. Maximum blood lactate concentration in the same test athlete after 13 different maximum loads on the treadmill (Hermansen, 1972)

Rest pauses should not be long so that the lactate level does not decrease significantly. This will help both increase the power of the glycolytic process and increase its capacity.

The amount of lactate in the muscles during maximum intensity work depends significantly on its duration. Maximum lactate values are observed with work durations ranging from 1.5 to 5.0 minutes; a further increase in work duration is associated with a significant decrease in lactate concentration. Fig 4

This should be taken into account when choosing the duration of work aimed at increasing lactate anaerobic productivity.

However, it should be taken into account that the lactate concentration when performing exercises in interval mode is much higher than during continuous work (Fig. 5), and the constant increase in lactate from repetition to repetition when performing short-term exercises indicates the increasing role of glycolysis with increasing number of repetitions. Short-term loads performed with maximum intensity and leading to a decrease in performance due to progressive fatigue are associated with the mobilization of glycogen reserves in muscle BS fibers, and the decrease in glycogen concentration in MS fibers is insignificant. When performing prolonged work, the situation is reversed: the depletion of glycogen stores primarily occurs in the MS fibers. (Figure 6.) Relatively short-term intense loads are characterized by rapid consumption of muscle glycogen and insignificant use of liver glycogen, therefore, with such systematic loads, the glycogen content in the muscles increases, while in the liver, like the total glycogen reserve, remains almost unchanged. An increase in glycogen stores in the liver is associated with the use of prolonged moderate-intensity exercise or the performance of a large number of high-speed exercises in individual exercise programs.

Prolonged aerobic exercise leads to intensive involvement of fats in metabolic processes, which become the main source of energy. For example, during a 100 km run, total energy expenditure averages 29,300 kJ (7,000 kcal). Half of this energy is provided by the oxidation of carbohydrates and fatty acids, 24% of total energy consumption comes from intracellular reserves of carbohydrates and fats, the rest of the substrates are obtained by muscle cells in the blood from the subcutaneous fat depot, liver and other organs (Oberholer et alt., 1976 ).

Rice. 6. Glycogen concentration in muscle fibers during short-term intense (a) and long-term moderate (b) exercise (Volkov et al., 2000)

Various components of aerobic performance can be improved only with prolonged single loads or with large quantities short-term exercises. In particular, local aerobic endurance can be fully increased when performing long-term loads exceeding 60% of the maximum available duration. As a result of such training, a complex of hemodynamic and metabolic changes occurs in the muscles. Hemodynamic changes are mainly expressed in improved capillarization and intramuscular redistribution of blood; metabolic - in an increase in intramuscular glycogen, hemoglobin, an increase in the number and volume of mitochondria, an increase in the activity of oxidative enzymes and the specific gravity of fat oxidation compared to carbohydrates (De Vries, Housh, 1994).

Long-term work of a certain direction in individual training programs leads to a decrease in its training effect or a significant change in the direction of the predominant impact. Thus, prolonged aerobic work is associated with a gradual decrease in the maximum possible oxygen consumption. Aerobic exercise(bicycle ergometer) for 70-80 minutes at a work intensity of 70-80% of V0 2 max, leads to a decrease in oxygen consumption by an average of 8%, a load for 100 minutes - by 14% (Hollmann, Hettinger , 1980). A decrease in oxygen consumption is accompanied by a decrease in systolic blood volume by 10-15%, an increase in heart rate by 15-20%, a decrease in mean arterial pressure by 5-10%, and an increase in minute respiratory volume by 10-15% (Hoffman, 2002; Wilmore, Costill, 2004).

However, it should be taken into account that as long-term work of varying intensity is performed, not so much quantitative as qualitative changes occur in the activity of the organs and systems of the body. For example, when performing long-term continuous or interval aerobic work, the glycogen reserves in the MS fibers are first depleted, and only at the end, with the development of fatigue, in the SB fibers (Shephard, 1992; Platonov, Bulatoba 2003). In qualified athletes, aerobic work for two hours leads to the depletion of glycogen in MS fibers. With an increase in the duration of work performed, the glycogen reserves in the BS fibers are gradually depleted. A sharp increase in the intensity of training effects (for example, repeated repetitions of 15-30 second exercises with high intensity and short pauses) is associated with the primary depletion of glycogen stores in BS fibers, and only after a large number of repetitions are glycogen stores in MS fibers depleted (Henriksoon, 1992). To achieve the required training effect, it is also important to choose the optimal duration of training loads and the frequency of their use. Studies have shown that for the formation of peripheral adaptation, which ensures an increase in the level of aerobic endurance in trained individuals, the most effective are loads of maximum duration six times a week (Fig. 7) (Fig. 8).

Rice. 7. The influence of the frequency of training sessions (6 times a week - /, 3 times a week - 2) on the development of aerobic local dynamic muscular endurance (Ikai, Taguchi, 1969)

Rice. 8. The influence of the duration of work in individual training sessions (1 - maximum; 2 - 2/3 of maximum; 3 - 1/2 of maximum) on the development of aerobic peripheral dynamic muscular endurance (Ikai, Taguchi, 1969)

Three-time loads, as well as loads whose duration is 1/2 or 2/3 of the maximum available, lead to a smaller training effect.

It is quite clear that differences in the training effect of loads of different durations and applied with different frequencies largely depend on the training and qualifications of the athletes. Poorly trained or unskilled athletes adapt effectively even when planning two or three loads a week for a relatively short duration. Thus, comprehensive planning of load components, based on objective knowledge, is an effective tool for the formation of a given urgent and long-term adaptation.

5. Specificity of reactions of adaptation of the athlete’s body to loads

In relation to various types of physical activity used in modern training, specific adaptive reactions arise, due to the characteristics of neurohumoral regulation, the degree of activity of various organs and functional mechanisms.

With effective adaptation to given loads that have specific characteristics, nerve centers, individual organs and functional mechanisms related to various anatomical structures of the body are combined into a single complex, which is the basis on which immediate and long-term adaptive reactions are formed.

The specificity of immediate and long-term adaptation is clearly manifested even under loads characterized by the same primary focus, duration, intensity, and differing only in the nature of the exercises. With a specific load, athletes are able to demonstrate higher functional capabilities compared to a non-specific load. As an example confirming this position, in Fig. 9. Individual values of V0 2 max for highly qualified road cyclists are presented when tested on a bicycle ergometer and treadmill. The increased capabilities of the autonomic nervous system when performing specific loads are largely stimulated by the formation of appropriate mental states in response to specific means of training.

Rice. 9. Values of maximum oxygen absorption in highly skilled road cyclists under load on a bicycle ergometer and treadmill (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980)

It is known that mental states, as the dynamic impact of mental processes, represent a mobile system formed in accordance with the requirements dictated by specific activities. In tense conditions physical activity limiting demands are often placed on mental processes. In response to certain, frequently occurring intense stimuli, mental resistance to stress is formed, manifested in the redistribution of functional capabilities - an increase in the mental abilities that are most significant for achieving the goal with a pronounced decrease in others, less significant. In this case, a syndrome of “over-manifestations” of the psyche arises in the direction of information retrieval processes, motivation, and voluntary control of behavior (Rodionov, 1973; Kellman, Callus, 2001).

Along with the higher maximum values of shifts in the activity of functional systems that bear the main load under specific loads compared to non-specific loads, they note the rapid development of the required level of functional activity, i.e. intensive work-in when using habitual loads (for example, the rapid adaptability of the heart of a high-class athlete , specializing in skiing, to the competitive load) and exceptionally high activity of the heart both before the start and during the course. Noteworthy are the heart rate values before the start, the rapid achievement of maximum values and their higher level compared to work of maximum intensity on a bicycle ergometer.

The selectivity of the effects of loads can be convincingly demonstrated by the results of an experiment in which subjects performed long-term aerobic work on a bicycle ergometer, working with one leg, for 6 weeks (Neppkson, 1992). After the end of the training, energy metabolism was studied using arterial and venous catheterization and muscle biopsy when performing a bicycle ergometric load with an intensity of 70% V0 2 max. In the trained leg, compared to the untrained leg, there was significantly less lactate secretion, as well as a significantly higher percentage of energy production due to fat combustion. These data should be taken into account when attempting to use the cross-adaptation effect in the training of qualified athletes.

The specialized literature has widely covered the practical aspect of the phenomenon of cross-adaptation, associated with the transfer of adaptive reactions acquired as a result of the action of some stimuli to the action of others. Adaptation to muscle activity may be accompanied by the development of adaptation to other stimuli, for example, hypoxia, cooling, overheating, etc. (Rusin, 1984).

Cross adaptation is based on the commonality of demands placed on the body by various stimuli. In particular, adaptation to hypoxia is, first of all, a “struggle for oxygen” and its more efficient use, and adaptation to increased muscle activity also leads to an increase in the possibilities of oxygen transport and oxidative mechanisms. This applies not only to respiratory, but also to anaerobic resynthesis of ATP. Adaptation to cold during muscle activity increases the potential for aerobic and glycolytic oxidation of carbohydrates, as well as lipid metabolization and fatty acid oxidation. When adapting to overheating, the most important thing is what is achieved with systematic muscle activity an increase in the ability of mitochondria to both greater degrees of separation of respiration and phosphorylation, and to greater degrees of their coupling (Yakovlev, 1974).

Cross-adaptation phenomena that play a role in individuals training to improve their health and physical fitness, cannot be considered as a serious factor ensuring the growth of training in qualified athletes. Even in untrained individuals, the increase physical qualities, for example, strength, as a result of cross-adaptation, is clearly insignificant compared to the level of adaptive changes due to direct training.

On the limited possibilities of the cross-adaptation phenomenon in relation to sports tasks highest achievements Many other experimental data also confirm this.

Studies that trained a single leg showed that local adaptation occurs only at the level of the trained leg. Two groups of subjects trained on a bicycle ergometer for 4 weeks, 4-5 sessions each, performing work with one leg. The subjects' training was aimed at developing aerobic endurance. As a result of training, subjects in both groups increased V0 2 max, decreased heart rate and had a lower lactate level at a standard submaximal load. These changes were more pronounced in individuals who trained for endurance. At the same time, in individuals in the second group, compared with those in the first group, the activity of succinate dehydrogenase and the efficiency of glycogen consumption increased significantly. All these positive changes affected mainly the trained leg. In particular, lactate release during submaximal intensity work was observed only in the untrained leg. The authors explained the differences primarily by increased activity of aerobic enzymes and improved capillarization of training muscles.

Specificity of adaptation to specific physical activity is determined to a greater extent by the characteristics of muscle contractile activity than by external stimuli, in particular, changes in the hormonal environment. This is evident from the fact that mitochondrial adaptation is limited to the muscle fibers involved in contraction. For example, in runners and cyclists, the increase in mitochondrial content is limited to the muscles lower limbs; if one limb is trained, adaptation is limited only to its limits (Wilmore and Costill, 2004). It has also been shown that adaptive changes in mitochondrial content can be induced by exercise despite the absence of thyroid or pituitary hormones (Holloszy and Cole, 1984).

The specificity of adaptation manifests itself in relation to various physical qualities. This is evidenced by the data according to which dexterity mainly increases in relation to the indicators of the hand that was subjected to special training (Figure 10). I wonder what maximum effect observed only with a certain amount of work, exceeding which negatively affects the course of adaptive reactions. V.I. made similar conclusions. Lyakh (1989), who studied the structure and relationship of various types of human coordination abilities and showed their relative independence from each other.

Rice. 10. Increase in dexterity of trained (7) and untrained (2) hands as a result of six-week training, depending on the amount of work performed (Hettinger, Hollmann, 1964)

Rice. 11.. Volumetric content of mitochondria in three types of muscle fibers in a student who is not involved in sports (I) sports university(II) and endurance-trained athlete (III) (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980)

The specificity of the effect of training on endurance due to the involvement of fibers of different types and their adaptive reserves in terms of increasing the volumetric content of mitochondria is manifested in the following: in FSB fibers, the volumetric content of mitochondria is almost the same in untrained and endurance-trained individuals. In BCa fibers, especially in MS fibers, of trained individuals, the volumetric content of mitochondria significantly exceeds that of individuals not trained for endurance (Fig. 11).

Thus, when preparing high-class athletes, one should focus on means and methods that ensure the adequacy of training influences on shifts in the activity of functional systems,

dynamic and kinematic structure of movements, features of mental processes during effective competitive activity.

6. Impact of loads on the body of athletes of various qualifications and preparedness

Urgent and long-term adaptation of athletes changes significantly under the influence of their level of qualification, preparedness and functional state. At the same time, work that is the same in volume and intensity causes different reactions. If the reaction to standard work among masters of sports is expressed insignificantly - fatigue or shifts in the activity of the functional systems bearing the main load are small, recovery proceeds quickly, then in less qualified athletes the same work causes a much more violent reaction: the lower the qualifications of the athlete, the more Fatigue and changes in the state of the functional systems most actively involved in ensuring work are more pronounced; the recovery period is longer (Fig. 12). Under extreme loads, qualified athletes experience more pronounced reactions.

Under extreme loads in a trained person, oxygen consumption can exceed 6 l-min -1, cardiac output - 44-47 l-min"1, systolic blood volume - 200-220 ml, i.e. 1.5 --2 times higher than in untrained persons. In trained people, compared to untrained people, a significantly more pronounced reaction of the sympathetic-adrenal system is manifested. All this provides a person adapted to physical activity with greater performance, manifested in an increase in the intensity and duration of work.

Athletes trained for strenuous aerobic work experience a significant increase in muscle vascularization due to an increase in the number of capillaries in muscle tissue and the opening of potential collateral vessels, which leads to increased blood flow during strenuous work. At the same time, under standard loads, trained individuals, compared to untrained individuals, have a smaller decrease in blood flow to non-working muscles, liver and other internal organs. This is due to the improvement of the central mechanisms of differentiated regulation of blood flow, increased vascularization of muscle fibers, and increased ability of muscle tissue to utilize oxygen from the blood. At the same time, under standard loads, trained individuals, compared to untrained individuals, experience a smaller decrease in blood flow to non-working muscles, liver and other internal organs. This is due to the improvement of the central mechanisms of differentiated regulation of blood flow, increased vascularization of muscle fibers, and increased ability of muscle tissue to utilize oxygen from the blood.

Rice. 12. Reaction of the body of athletes of low (7), medium (2) and high qualification (3) to work of the same volume and intensity

Rice. 13. Reaction of the body of athletes of high (1) and low (2) qualification to the maximum load

In high-class athletes, with a more pronounced reaction to the maximum load, the recovery processes after it are more intense. If for athletes who are not highly qualified, the restoration of performance after training sessions with heavy loads of a mixed aerobic-anaerobic nature can take up to 3-4 days, then for masters of sports the recovery period is 2 times shorter. And this is provided that their total training volume is much greater compared to low-qualified athletes (Fig. 13.). It is also important that among highly qualified athletes, large shifts in the activity of the autonomic nervous system under maximum load are accompanied by more effective work, which is manifested in its efficiency, efficiency of intermuscular and intramuscular coordination. This effect is observed even in cases where the differences in the qualifications of athletes are not very large.

Standard and maximum loads cause reactions that are unequal in magnitude and nature various stages training macrocycle, as well as if they are planned when the level of functional capabilities of the body has not been restored after previous loads. Thus, at the beginning of the first stage of the preparatory period, the reaction of the athlete’s body to standard specific loads is more pronounced in comparison with the indicators recorded at the second stage of the preparatory and competitive periods. Consequently, an increase in special training leads to a significant economization of functions when performing standard work. Maximum loads, on the contrary, are associated with more pronounced reactions as the athletes’ training increases.

Figure 14. Reaction of the functional systems of the body of cyclists at the beginning and end of the race (Mikhailov, 1971)

Performing the same work in different functional states leads to different reactions from the functional systems of the body. An example is the research results obtained when simulating the conditions of a team pursuit race on a track: performing work of the same power and duration under conditions of fatigue leads to a sharp increase in shifts in the activity of functional systems (Fig. 14). The functional state of athletes should be especially strictly monitored when planning work aimed at increasing speed and coordination abilities. Work aimed at improving these qualities should be carried out only with the complete restoration of the body's functional capabilities, which determine the level of manifestation of these qualities. If high-speed loads or loads aimed at increasing coordination abilities are performed with reduced functionality in relation to the maximum manifestation of these qualities, effective adaptation does not occur. Moreover, relatively rigid motor stereotypes can form, limiting the increase in speed and coordination abilities (Platonov, 1984).

Loads typical for modern sports, lead to exceptionally high sports results, rapid long-term adaptation and reaching difficult to predict values. Unfortunately, these loads are often the reason for the suppression of adaptive capabilities, the cessation of growth in results, the reduction in the duration of an athlete’s performance at the level of the highest achievements, and the appearance of pre-pathological and pathological changes in the body (Fig. 15).

Effective adaptation of the athletes’ body to loads is noted in the second and first parts of the third zones of interaction between the stimulus and the body’s response. At the border of the third and fourth zones, the growth of functions slows down with the inclusion of compensatory protective mechanisms. The transition to the fourth zone leads to a natural decrease in the functional capabilities of athletes and the emergence of overtraining syndrome (Shirkovets, Shustin, 1999).

Rice. 15. Scheme of the dynamics of the interaction of training loads and the functional potential of the athletes’ body in various zones (Shirkovets, Shustin, 1999)

At the beginning of targeted training, the adaptation process is intense. In the future, as the level of development of motor qualities and capabilities of various organs and systems increases, the rate of formation of long-term adaptive reactions slows down significantly. This pattern manifests itself at individual stages of training within the training macrocycle and over many years of training.

The expansion of the zone of functional reserve of organs and body systems in qualified and trained athletes is associated with a narrowing of the zone that stimulates further adaptation: the higher the qualification of the athlete, the narrower the range of functional activity that can stimulate the further course of adaptive processes (Figure 16). In the early stages of many years of preparation -- initial training, preliminary basic training-- you should use as widely as possible the means located in the lower half of the zone that stimulates long-term adaptation. This is the key to expanding this zone in subsequent stages. The widespread use of means in the upper half of the zone in the early stages of long-term training can sharply reduce it in subsequent stages and thus minimize the arsenal of methods and means that can stimulate long-term adaptation at the final, most critical stages of long-term training.

Rice. 16. The relationship between the zone of functional reserve (1) and the zone that stimulates further adaptation (2): a - in persons who do not go in for sports; b - for athletes of average qualification; s -- among international class athletes (Platonov, 1997)

7. Reactions of the athlete’s body to competitive loads

Modern competitive activity of high-class athletes is extremely intense; track cyclists - 160 times or more, road cyclists plan up to 100-150 or more competitive days during the year, etc. Such a high volume of competitive activity is due not only to the need for successful performance in various competitions, but also to the use them as the most powerful means of stimulating adaptive reactions and integral training, which allows us to combine the entire complex of technical-tactical, functional, physical and mental prerequisites, qualities and abilities into a single system aimed at achieving the planned result. Even with optimal planning of training loads simulating competitive ones, and with appropriate motivation of the athlete for their effective implementation, the level of functional activity of regulatory and executive bodies turns out to be significantly lower than in competitions. Only during competitions can an athlete reach the level of extreme functional manifestations and perform such work that turns out to be unbearable during training sessions. As an example, we present data obtained from highly qualified athletes when performing a single load (Fig. 17).

Rice. 17. Reaction of the body of a highly qualified cyclist (individual pursuit race of 4 km on the track) to the load: 1 - step bicycle ergometer; 2 -- control competitions; 3 -- the main competitions of the season; a - heart rate, beat-min" 1; b - lactate, mmol-l"

Creating a competition microclimate when performing complexes training exercises and training programs contribute to an increase in the performance of athletes and a deeper mobilization of the functional reserves of their body.

Many studies indicate that competition conditions contribute to a more complete use of the body’s functional reserves compared to training conditions. At control training lactate accumulation in muscles occurs much less than when covering the same distances under competition conditions.

Competitive loads in cycling (long road races) can lead to significant pathological disorders in the muscles that bear the main load, which is usually not observed in the training process.

In the muscles bearing the main load, damage to the contractile apparatus was detected (damage to 2-discs, lysismofibrils, the occurrence of contractures), mitochondria (swelling, crystalline inclusions), ruptures of the sarcolemma, cell necrosis and inflammation, etc. were noted. These traumatic signs disappear no earlier than after 10 days after the competition. Research has shown that when repeated testing under normal conditions, force fluctuations during repeated measurements usually do not exceed 3-4%. If repeated measurements are performed under competitive conditions or with appropriate motivation, the increase in strength can be 10-15% (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980), in some cases - 20% or more. These data require a change in the still existing ideas about competitions as a simple implementation of what is inherent in the training process. The fallacy of these ideas is obvious, since highest achievements athletes perform in major competitions. At the same time, the higher the rank of the competitions, the competition in them, the attention to the competitions from fans and the press, the higher the sporting results are. This is despite the fact that in the conditions of control competitions it is possible to avoid many factors that would seem to create obstacles to effective competitive activity. However, in secondary competitions, one of the decisive factors that determines the level of results in elite sports is missing - the maximum mobilization of mental capabilities. It is well known that the results of any athlete’s activity, especially those related to extreme situations, depend not only on the perfection of his skills and the level of development of physical qualities, but also on his character, strength of aspirations, determination of actions, mobilization of will. Moreover, the higher the class of the athlete, the greater the role in achieving high sports results played by his mental capabilities, which can significantly affect the level of functional manifestations (Zeng, Pakhomov, 1985).

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