Adaptive changes – training effect.
Training - physical activity causes an adaptive response of the body, which manifests itself as biochemical changes in the composition of the internal environment - metabolic changes. The magnitude and direction of adaptive biochemical changes or the degree of impact of physical activity on the body depend on the type, nature, and mode of physical activity - sports exercises. Adaptive changes in metabolism that occur under the influence of training are expressed in a change in the metabolic states of the body and determine the training effect. Biological science and sports theory consider sports training as a process of directed adaptation of the body to the effects of physical activity.
The nature of the body’s adaptation to exposure physical activity is defined as phase (which can be directly seen from the supercompensation graph). Adaptive changes in the body and in metabolism differ in the time of implementation; accordingly, there are two stages of adaptation: urgent and long-term (chronic) adaptation.
Urgent adaptation is the body’s reaction to a single impact of physical activity; it is based on the biochemical mechanisms inherent in the body (that is, evolutionarily assigned) of changes in energy metabolism and vegetative maintenance functions. The stage of urgent adaptation is accompanied by an intensification of processes leading to the synthesis of ATP and restoration of the disturbed balance of high-energy compounds.
Long-term adaptation develops (of course, over a long period of time) as the total effect of repeated implementation of segments of urgent adaptation and is characterized by the appearance of significant structural and functional changes in the body - a sustainable adaptation effect. The repeatedly repeated factor of physical activity in the process of long-term adaptation activates the synthesis of proteins that form the contractile structures of muscles, selects and consolidates more effective energy supply mechanisms.
The phase nature of the process of adaptation to physical activity allows us to distinguish three types of training effect: immediate, delayed (prolonged) and cumulative (cumulative). The urgent training effect is manifested by biochemical changes in the body that occur directly during physical activity and during the period of urgent recovery (within the next 0.5 - 1 hour after the end of the load). It is associated with the elimination of oxygen debt formed during work and rapid recovery reactions. The delayed training effect is observed at a later date than the immediate one, and it is characterized by processes of restoration of the body’s energy “depots”, accelerated synthesis of destroyed and new cellular compounds. The cumulative training effect is considered as the accumulation of traces of multiple immediate and delayed effects - the result of their sequential summation. The cumulative training effect is formed by complex biochemical changes that occur over a long period of training. The growth of the training effect is expressed in an increase in performance indicators and improved sports results.
Biological principles sports training.
The theory of sports and sports biochemistry have studied and formulated the main patterns of development of adaptation to the effects of physical activity during training. For the practice of sports, these patterns are formulated as biological principles of sports training. The following six principles are of greatest importance:
the principle of superabundance,
principle of specificity,
principle of reversibility of action,
principle of positive interaction,
principle of sequential adaptation,
principle of cyclicity.
Increased intensity of functioning (hyperfunction) of leading systems or organs under load creates a stimulus to enhance the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins that form these organs and systems, and leads to the development of the necessary structural and functional changes in the body. The amount of physical activity that causes adaptation does not remain constant; it increases noticeably during the training process. Therefore, in order to provide the necessary stimulus for continuous improvement of performance, the magnitude of the applied load should gradually increase along with the athlete's training.
The principle of supereating and the “Dose-effect” relationship.
The principle of overeating reflects the following pattern of biological adaptation: pronounced adaptationssignificant changes in the body can only be achieved whenphysical exercises used during trainingloads sufficiently burden the trained function andthereby stimulating its development.
= A pronounced increase in the training effect is ensured only by progressive (increasing) loads. The increase in the training effect of supereating is reflected by the dose-effect relationship.
The development of the trained function is not stimulated by any physical activity. Small in size - ineffective - not sufficient to cause adaptive changes in the body. A pronounced increase in the trained function is achieved when exposed to a load exceeding a certain threshold value, in excess of the value to which adaptation has already been developed. This dependence is explained by the different reactions of body systems to a specific type of impact: systems providing intracellular energy metabolism and autonomic support of functions respond in proportion to the force of action, while the hormonal, sympathetic-adrenal and pituitary-andrenocortical systems give a nonspecific response. This nonspecific response is called stress syndrome, since it is a reaction to a strong stimulus (stressor, stress factor) exceeding a certain threshold level. During the training process, not only physical activity, but also other external factors can act as a stressor: bioclimatic, pharmacological, psychogenic, social, etc.
Physical activity, increasing to a stress level, provides an active adaptive reaction of the body, leading to an increase in the trained function. The range in which an increase in physical activity is accompanied by a proportional increase in the trained function is called the range effective loads, since here the training effect is predictable. Of course, the linear dependence - a continuous increase in the trained function with an increase in the volume of loads performed - is not infinite. In relation to a specific function or organ, and, of course, the organism, there is an individual limit of adaptation. The rate of growth of the trained function gradually slows down as it approaches the maximum load value and, when it is reached, becomes zero. Excessive load (exceeding the maximum level) causes a paradoxical or reverse reaction. This phenomenon is called adaptation failure (or overtraining). In practice, extreme loads are still used: in competitions, in control and special training, but their frequent use leads to exhaustion of the body as a whole and, especially, of the systems responsible for adaptation. To the greatest extent, individual tolerance to extreme loads is determined by the adaptive reserve of the sympathetic-adrenal and pituitary-adrenocortical systems.
The dose-effect relationship graph is represented by a curve, Fig. 10, which is conventionally divided into parts.
Rice. 10. Dose-effect relationship.
The interval of ineffective loads is followed by the initial stage of adaptation development - the exponential curve is close to a straight line. At this training interval, the limits of adaptation have not yet been reached - you can increase the loads and the volume of work performed - this is the range of effective loads. When the training load approaches the limit, the “dose-effect” relationship becomes exponential with “saturation”. At this stage, the risk of overexertion and failure of adaptation increases. In the range of maximum loads of the dose-effect relationship at the “peak” of the parabolic curve, the increase in the trained function stops. If the load continues to increase to the limit, an exponential decrease in the training effect is observed.
It is possible to prevent a decrease in the rate of adaptation development (not permanently, but only to “raise the ceiling”), for example, by changing the size and nature of the training load or by using additional factors in training that stimulate adaptive changes in the body. An example is the training of short-distance runners. The use of special nutritional preparations that stimulate anabolic processes in working muscles significantly increases the training effect and allows one to show better results with less volume of training work.
The principle of specificity.
According to the principle of specificity under the influence of training the most pronouncedadaptive changes occur inthose organs, tissues, functional systems that are affected by the main physical load.
= The trained system specifically adapts (hypertrophies). Depending on the type and magnitude of the load in the body, a dominant system is formed, it is the most loaded, and, accordingly, provided in the process of plastic and energy metabolism. Excessive training at a certain point in time can cause depletion of the functional reserves of the dominant system and weaken the functioning of other systems - overtraining. To avoid this condition, it is necessary to regularly shift the load of the dominant and “pull up” the non-dominant systems supporting this sport to the required level of fitness.
The specificity of adaptive changes in the body caused by training is manifested in both immediate and cumulative training effects. Biochemical changes in the body at the micro and macro levels also reflect the specificity of adaptation. Under the influence of the applied means and methods of training a particular (specific) sport, those functional properties and qualities of the body that are necessary to achieve the best results in it are mainly developed. For example, sprinters have a high capacity of the alactic anaerobic system (ATP + CrP) and high glycolytic anaerobic capacity (this is the ability to resist the accumulation of maximum amounts of lactic acid). At the same time, long-distance runners - stayers have high levels of aerobic power and aerobic efficiency and moderate load produce less lactic acid (than sprinters).
(3) Reversibility of the action of adaptation.
From the principle of reversibility of action it follows that adaptationSignificant changes in the body caused by training disappear over time.
= Without training, adaptive changes vanish . After the cessation of the load or during a break in training, positive structural and functional changes in the dominant system gradually decrease until they disappear completely.
This principle is most clearly manifested in the delayed training effect observed after the end of the physical activity. For example, the changes caused by it in the sphere of energy metabolism quickly return to the initial level and at a certain moment exceed it (supercompensation phase). Upon completion of the supercompensation phase, energy metabolism indicators, experiencing periodic fluctuations, gradually return to normal. Based on this pattern of recovery processes, it was shown that in order to develop adaptation during the training process, repeated loads should be set in the supercompensation phase. The principle of action reversibility is fully applicable to the case of cumulative training effects. High performance achieved over a long period of training decreases after it is stopped or its intensity is reduced.
(4) Positive interaction of training effects.
The principle of positive interaction reflects the fact that the cumulative effect that occurs after repeated repetition of the load is not a simple addition of a certain number of immediate and delayed training effects. Each subsequent load has a certain effect on the adaptive effect of the previous load and can modify it. If the result of such a summation of training effects from sequentially performed loads leads to increased adaptive changes in the body, then a positive interaction takes place; if each subsequent load reduces the effect of the previous one, the interaction is considered negative; if the subsequent load does not significantly affect the training effect of the previous load, a neutral interaction occurs . Effective adaptation over a long period of training can only be achieved with a positive interaction between individual loads. The training effect of physical activity can be influenced by other nonspecific training factors: nutrition, the use of physiotherapeutic and pharmacological methods, bioclimatic factors, etc. The use of additional factors to enhance adaptation to physical activity can be successful only if the specific effects These factors will interact positively with the training effects of loads.
(5) Sequence of adaptive changes.
The principle of sequential adaptation follows from the well-studied facts of heterochronism (different times) of biochemical changes in the body that occur during training. Thus, with an urgent training effect after a single physical load, adaptive changes in the sphere of energy metabolism are detected primarily from the alactic anaerobic system, then from anaerobic glycolysis, and the slowest reaction is observed from the processes of mitochondrial respiration and oxidative phosphorylation. During the recovery period after the end of physical activity, supercompensation of the content of CrF in the muscles is quickly achieved, then glycogen and, finally, lipids and proteins that form subcellular structures. In the process of long-term adaptation, the first to change are the power indicators of energy processes, then the energy capacity, and only at the final stage of adaptation - the energy efficiency indicators.
(6) Cyclical development of adaptation. Periodization of training.
The principle of cyclicity states that adaptive changes in the body during training are phasic in nature and these fluctuations in the rate of development of adaptation on the part of leading functions have different amplitudes and wavelengths. To create the necessary stimulus for the development of adaptation, the training effects of several loads (or training sessions) must be summed up according to certain rules and represent some completed cycle of influences on the leading functions. To fully adapt to such a cycle of training influences, it should be repeated many times over a certain period of training, during which a specific task of training the athlete is solved. From such training cycles, which successively replace each other from stage to stage in accordance with the natural development of adaptation, larger cycles are formed in individual functions that separate the moments of athletes’ participation in the most important competitions of the season.
And that's not all either. On the topic of lecture No. 7, in laboratory and practical classes, students study in detail and with examples in specific sports:
1. Principles of specificity, reversibility, positive interaction of training effects.
2. Patterns of sequence and cyclicity of adaptive changes.
3. Techniques and methods of potentiation, periodization and optimization of the training process.
Mikhailov S.S. Sports biochemistry. Textbook for universities and colleges of physics. cult. – M: Publishing house Soviet sport, 2004, 220 p.
Biochemistry muscle activity: textbook for IFC / N. I. Volkov [etc.]. – Kyiv: Olympic Literature, 2000. – 502 p.
Biochemistry: Textbook. For the institute of physics. cult. /Ed. V. V. Menshikova, N. I. Volkova. – M.: Physical culture and sport, 1986. – 384 p., ill.
Matveev L.P. Fundamentals of sports training: Textbook. village for IFCs. - M.: FiS, 1977.
Biochemistry: textbook for IFC / ed. N.N.Yakovleva. – M.: Physical culture and sport, 1974. – P. 231-243.
List of articles to study by lecture topics:
Zhelyazkov Ts. O. About the essence of sports uniform.// Theory and practice physical culture, 1997, № 7.
Solodkov A. S. Adaptation in sports: theoretical and applied aspects. M. “Theor. and practical physical cult." 1990. - No. 5. - P.3-5.
V. Poptsov. Some aspects of sports physiology in relation to endurance sports. Magazine "" Ski racing"" (№ 1 (7) 1998.
Sergeev Yu.P. About some theoretical developments and experience of introducing the achievements of biological science into sports practice // Scientific-sport. Vestn., 1980, No. 5, p. 14-19.
Matveev L.P. To the theory of sports training construction // Theor. and practical physical cult., 1991, No. 12, p. 11-12.
Verkhoshansky Yu. V. Current problems of modern theory and methods of sports training // Theor. and practical physical cult., 1993, No. 8, p. 21-28.
Matveev L.P. Notes on some innovations in views on the theory of sports training // Theor. and practical physical cult., 1995, No. 12, p. 49-52.
Matveev L.P., Meerson F.Z. Principles of training theory and modern provisions of the theory of adaptation to physical activity //Essays on the theory of physical culture. - M.: FiS, 1984, p. 224-240.
Meerson F.Z., Pshennikova M.G. Adaptation to stressful situations and physical activity. - M.: Medicine, 1988.
It is also recommended to use the Internet and read articles published in the journal “Theory and Practice of Physical Culture” and in its electronic version on the website http://www.infosport.ru/press/tpfk/
S. E. Pavlov. Fundamentals of adaptation theory and sports training. M. “Theor. and practical physical cult." 1999, no. 1, p. 12-17.
http://www.infosport.ru/press/tpfk/1999N1/p12-17.htm
2. L. P. Matveev. Towards a discussion about the theory of sports training. M. " Theor. and practical physical cult."1998, no. 7, p. 55-61.
http:// lib. sportedu. ru/ Press/ tpfk/1998 n7/ p55-61
http://lib.sportedu.ru/Press/TPFK/1999№1/p2-11.htm
4. S. E. Pavlov M.V. Pavlova T.N. Kuznetsova. Recovery in sports. Theoretical and practical aspects. M. " Theor. and practical physical cult.» 2000, No. 1, p. 23-26.
http:// lib. sportedu. ru/ Press/ TPFK/2000 n1/ p23-26. htm
Mental chronometry technique - class psychological methods, intended to establish the time of occurrence of mental processes based on recording the time spent by the subject on the answer, for example, the time of motor reaction when solving various cognitive tasks. The time for performing simple mental operations is determined by the subtraction method: from the reaction time in a task where the required operation is involved, the reaction time in a similar task where it is not needed is subtracted. .
Quillian experiment: subjects were asked to evaluate the truth of statements such as “canaries can sing”, “canaries have feathers”, “canaries have skin”. Reaction time was measured. Result: the time spent assessing the truth of the first statement (1310 ms) was less than the time spent assessing the second (1380 ms), which, in turn, was less than the assessment of the third (1470 ms).
24 .Heuristic potential of semantic memory functioning. The principle of inheritance of properties.
Semantic memory is a type of memory that reflects generalized knowledge about the world. Semantic memory was first described by Michael Ross Quillian in 1970. He proposed a network model to explain how information representing knowledge about the world is organized and retrieved in memory.
Quillian proposed that information in semantic memory is stored in hierarchically organized network structures that consist of nodes and relationships between them. The principle of inheritance of properties: each node corresponds to a set of properties that is true for itself and all categories of the underlying level. Evidence: the cognitive economy hypothesis. It is assumed that if you ask a question about an object, the time to answer the question will depend on the distance traveled through the network. This proves that semantic memory exists as a network. Quillian experiment: subjects were asked to evaluate the truth of statements such as “canaries can sing”, “canaries have feathers”, “canaries have skin”. Reaction time was measured. Result: the time spent assessing the truth of the first statement (1310 ms) was less than the time spent assessing the second (1380 ms), which, in turn, was less than the assessment of the third (1470 ms).
Eleanor Roche expanded Quillian's model by introducing the concept of degree of categorical membership - the degree to which an object is a typical representative of its category. The time spent identifying the more typical representatives was less than the time spent identifying the less typical representatives. Conrad discovered that the empirical significance of a property is also important. Object coding is related to activity. Subjects took less time to judge the falsity or truth of statements such as “apples are edible” than statements such as “apples have dark seeds.” The fact that apples can be eaten is more important to us, although technically the first property is further from the “apples” node than the second.
Spreading activation model, J. Loftus, Collins: distances between objects indicate the degree of their semantic relatedness (it does not matter for what logical or empirical reason it developed). The excitation caused by the activation of one of the units spreads throughout the network, increasing the availability of elements associated with it. The level of activation decreases as the distance between units increases and over time.
25 .The principle of encoding specificity in episodic memory. Examples of experimental studies.
Episodic memory (E. Tulving) is a type of memory in which episodes of the past are stored. This is an evolutionarily late, easily vulnerable memory system, oriented to the past. Information is recorded directly in it, the order of events in memory corresponds chronological order fixation in memory. In episodic memory, information does not undergo changes, is not generalized, and does not develop. The time factor plays a big role; temporary interference can disrupt access to information. Access to episodic memory changes its content (the fact of access is recorded in the memory itself).
The principle of encoding specificity is that the availability of information is determined by the coincidence of key elements of the situation of memorization and retrieval. The key elements may be the state (drunk - sober), the place (underwater - on land), the surrounding background (Mozart - jazz - silence), smells (the smell of chocolate), etc. The principle of specificity of encoding applies even when the key element is not conscious (for example, smell). The result of a discrepancy between the encoding situation and the reproduction situation becomes the phenomenon of situational forgetting (memory is inaccessible due to a mismatch of key features during encoding and reproduction). In this case, the principle of specificity presupposes the passivity of the subject. But there is a combined interpretation - the principle of active specificity. Then the information that corresponds to the unfolding activity is consistently remembered, and in another situation the “gaps” are filled in based on the requirements of the new task.
J. Eich's experiment: subjects learned a series of words after taking a certain dose of alcohol. The reproduction result was better after taking the same dose of alcohol. D. Godden and A. Baddeley: Similar results for scuba divers who learned and recalled word lists underwater and on land. Within episodic memory, retrospective and prospective memory are distinguished. Retrospective stores memories of the past, and prospective stores memories of the future (retention of intentions). The success of recalling information from each system is almost uncorrelated, so prospective memory is recognized as relatively independent. The effectiveness of prospective memory is influenced by many factors: the importance and complexity of the task, the time for which the action is delayed, what this time is filled with, etc. If the intention is important, then it remains regardless of what the person did in the intermediate activity. If the intention is unimportant, then it will be better remembered if the intermediate activity was simple and boring.
Disturbances in the area of the brain responsible for this lead to a “field effect,” when a person’s behavior is completely determined by the current situation (enters the door because it is open, draws because he sees pencils, etc.).
Or see question 28 from block A
26. Individual differences in the organization of semantic memory. Moar's empirical "cartography".
People differ significantly from each other in the structure of semantic memory, as has been confirmed experimentally. Y. Moar asked the subjects, some of whom were residents of Cambridge (England), some residents of Glasgow (Scotland), to draw lines reflecting the relationships between pairs of cities London - Edinburgh, Edinburgh - Birmingham, Birmingham - London and London - Newcastle. Then, using a computer, “maps” were created based on the scores obtained. It is easy to see that subjects from Glasgow disproportionately exaggerated the size of their Scotland when the residents of Cambridge perceived it as a small piece of land, and England seemed huge to the Cambridges when the Scots greatly underestimated its size.
The results of the research complicate the initial idea of semantic networks; each node corresponds to a certain set of properties characterizing concepts (substores). The composition of substores is determined by 1) logical relationships between objects; 2) the degree of categorical membership of the object; 3) the empirical significance of a particular property as applied to a given object; 4) implicit, often unconscious parameters for the categorization of objects in the world. Variants of such substores can be scientific concepts, everyday concepts, images, diagrams, scenarios (fixed sequences of actions).
27 .The universal “peak” effect of autobiographical memories.
The “peak” effect of memories, D. Rubin, S. Wetzler, R. Nebis: people remember a disproportionately high number of autobiographical events dating back to the period 16 – 26 years. Subjects were asked to remember as much as possible in response to key words. Middle age respondents – 70 years old. The effect of peak recollection (a kind of thickening of memories) was observed in the period between 15 and 30 years.
Distribution of the number of memories:
1) Many memories of events that occurred several years before the survey (this reflects the operational component of autobiographical memory).
2) Low number of memories of early childhood(a consequence of childhood amnesia - people have only fragmentary memories of events before the age of three).
3) Peak memory for 15 – 30 years.
When people were asked to remember the most vivid and significant events, the effect of the operational component was erased, and the percentage of memories relating to the “peak” period increased from 17% to 57%.
It also turned out, for example, that books, music and films dating back to the period 15–30 years were rated as the most pleasant and left the strongest impressions.
Adults remember more events relating to their youth.
Interpretation of the phenomenon of “peak” memory:
1) The result of the appropriation of cultural life scenarios: the typical content of life events, which is shared by all members of the cultural community.
Research by D. Ruben, D. Berntsen: subjects had to indicate the seven most likely events in a person’s life, date them, and assess subjective importance and probability.
It was installed:
– cultural scripts actually exist and are shared by the majority of members of society; the most frequently indicated ones accounted for 90% of those indicated in general.
– cultural scripts include mainly socially desirable, positive events.
– the dates of events included in cultural scripts form a “peak” effect: 6 out of 7 most frequently mentioned ones relate to the ages of 16 – 30.
The peak effect is observed only for positive events. The “peak” effect is the implementation of a mechanism for structuring incoming autobiographical information in accordance with cultural scenarios.
2) Product of personality formation: autobiographical memory is one of the main resources for the formation and maintenance of personality, therefore we can assume the existence of a special mechanism that preserves a high density of memories associated with youth, with the moment of acquiring the first independent identity.
M. Sham (researcher of calendar peaks in autobiographical memory): connects the “peak” of memories with the period of first experiences, which are imprinted due to their novelty and emotional richness. These moments are subsequently used as “memory reference points.” There are moments of the so-called “interrupted identity” (reevaluation, redefinition of one’s personality) - memories of turning points. They provide a person with the opportunity to reflect on the path of development, the formation of his personality, and break it down into meaningful stages. Concentrating important events around turning points allows you to remember as much as possible about those periods of life. Typically, events that precede a turning point foreshadow future major changes.
– anticipation of a turning point should stimulate the recording of events – predecessors;
– a turning point event is often unexpected, so what was initially perceived as not too important is later assigned secondary significance.
The high intensity of memories of the period that follows the turning point suggests that after the turning point a person perceives the moments more and more acutely - the trail effect. Research by V.V. Nurkova: 40 subjects, they had to present their autobiography, and then note the turning points. The most accessible memories for recall accumulated around turning points; the increase in accessibility of these periods is described by a power function. The effect of the “peak” of memories is not only an age-related universal phenomenon; the factor of the individual configuration of events experienced as turning points is important.
These principles apply not only strength training, but in general any training related to the development of certain physical characteristics, based on a personal approach to the student.
System physical training, like any system, must obey certain general principles. The training process as a whole must comply with these principles, regardless of the methods and programs used, so that the goals and objectives set for the trainees are maximally realized. It would be incorrect to argue about the advantages of this or that technique or this or that training program. The effectiveness of the training process primarily depends on how conscientiously the principles of training are followed.
🔆1. The principle of supercompensation.
This principle reflects such a fundamental phenomenon for all biological beings that ensures survival and evolution as adaptation. This is a phenomenon that appears some time after training, which is characterized by an increase in the indicators of the trained function relative to the initial values. It lies in the fact that the level of those functions or resources that were affected as a result of a specific specific load increases during the recovery period after it. With the so-called cumulative adaptation, when the stress effect on the body has a periodically repeated character over a sufficiently long time, it has place summation and consolidation of individual adaptation effects.
As it turns out, the time after training can be divided into three phases:
1st phase or recovery phase. During this time period, the muscle tissue is restored, and along with it, the trained function itself is restored to its previous levels.
2nd phase - supercompensation. This phase is characterized by increased performance, during which the indicators of the trained function can be 10–20% higher than the initial level.
3rd phase - lost compensation. The trained indicator smoothly returns to the initial values.
Regular physical activity over a long period of time leads to an increase in training parameters and an increase in muscle mass. This fact allows a person to develop and improve his body.
To achieve good results in bodybuilding, each workout should occur during the supercompensation phase caused by the previous workout. It may seem that this task is easy to accomplish, but it is worth noting that the onset of the supercompensation phase may vary from person to person. different people. In addition, this phase is not easy to identify for a number of reasons. Another factor that makes it difficult to determine the ideal time for next workout, is that supercompensation for different parameters occurs at different times. This is why the frequency and nature of training in bodybuilding plays such an important role.
🔆 2.Overload principle.
This principle reflects the fact that in order for the supercompensation effect to occur, the effect on the body must exceed a certain threshold level. The magnitude of the load must be sufficient to trigger the adaptation mechanism and cause the phenomenon of supercompensation. In training practice, this is due to a constant increase in training loads.
This can be achieved by changing the parameters that determine the volume and intensity of a specific training load, manipulating combinations of these parameters.
🔆 3. The principle of specificity.
The principle of specificity indicates that the most pronounced adaptive changes under the influence of training occur in organs and functional systems that are most loaded when performing physical activity (N.V. Volkov). They turn out to be those organs and systems on which the transfer of load primarily depends on less fatigue and the risk of any damage.
🔆 4. The principle of reversibility.
The principle of reversibility is based on the phenomenon when cessation training sessions leads to the so-called detraining, that is, the gradual loss of qualities and functions acquired as a result of training. What is essentially happening is the body adapting to new (lower) requirements. “What is not used is lost.”
🔆 5. The principle of cyclicity.
The implementation of the cyclical principle in practice is the periodization of the training process. Periodization is the cornerstone of the theory and practice of any sports training and health practices. The use of periodization in planning the training process is the only way to ensure sufficiently long-term growth sports results provided that the possibility of overfatigue or overtraining is minimized.
Periodization in sports practice is used by dividing the training process into macro, meso and micro cycles.
It is advisable to ensure the undulation of load dynamics of various sizes (microcycles of moderate, medium and heavy loads). Increasing loads after reducing them will serve as the necessary incentive for further progress.
🔆 6. The principle of individuality.
According to the principle of individuality, loads must correspond to the current state of a person and change in accordance with changes in his body.
We are talking about differences due to physical fitness a person, his somato- and psychotype, age, the presence of certain deviations in health, gender, age.
In addition, there are significant differences in the composition of muscle fibers, the activity of certain enzymes, the level of metabolism, the efficiency of functioning of the neuromuscular, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive systems body, biomechanical differences due to anatomical features. There are no absolutely right or wrong training methods, effective or ineffective exercises and loads. Each workout, characterized by a load of a certain magnitude and direction, corresponds to a specific person, his current physical condition, as well as the tasks of this training stage.
(Adapted from the FPA textbook).
Adaptive changes in the body depend on the type of exercise performed muscle work and are observed both in character and in manifestations of the cumulative effect.
· The most pronounced effects of physical activity and adaptive changes are manifested in organs, systems and physiological mechanisms that are most stressed when performing physical activity (for which physical activity reaches a threshold or supra-threshold level) (“We train what we train”).
The specificity of training effects appears I
· Regarding motor skill (sports equipment) - the greatest effect of training is manifested in relation to the motor skill (sports technique) that the training is aimed at - principle of specialization. In this case, the training is aimed at developing and consolidating the technique of a certain movement and increasing its effectiveness, which requires development intermuscular coordination, which is specific to a particular type of movement and, as a rule, does not transfer from one movement to another.
· Regarding leading physical ability – training exercises and regimes contribute to the most effective development of that motor ability for the development of which they were selected and used. Examples.
o Speed loads increase the increase in anaerobic capacity due to increased creatine phosphate and glycolytic resynthesis of ATP.
o Speed-strength loads cause an increase in the content of creatine phosphate and glycogen in muscles, the development of sarcoplasmic reticulum, muscle hypertrophy myofibrillar type, shift in the spectrum of muscle fibers towards fast fibers, increased resistance to lactic acid.
o Long-term aerobic loads increase the possibilities of aerobic energy supply: muscle hypertrophy of the sarcoplasmic type; an increase in the number and size of muscle mitochondria, myoglobin content, glycogen concentration and intramuscular myoglobin reserves, a shift in the spectrum of muscle fibers towards red fibers, an increase in BMD.
o Power loads increase muscle mass due to the synthesis of contractile proteins.
· Regarding the composition of active muscle groups. Each type motor activity(physical exercise) activates and trains certain muscle groups. The highest functional indicators and the greatest efficiency are manifested when performing exercises using the main muscle groups being trained. For example, among qualified athletes, the highest VO2 max is recorded when performing a specific (competitive) exercise.
· Regarding training conditions - adaptive changes in the body that arise as a result of training in certain environmental conditions ensure that the body adapts to these specific environmental conditions.
Specific and nonspecific components of adaptation to physical activity
· Nonspecific changes are observed when performing any muscular work: increasing physical performance, improving regulatory mechanisms, improving health.
· The ratio of specific and nonspecific components depends on the nature of physical activity
o Adaptation to anaerobic loads is more specific than to aerobic ones, since with the former, adaptation is primarily associated with changes in the active muscles themselves, and the latter with extramuscular factors (state of the cardiorespiratory system, oxygen capacity of the blood, etc.).
o Highly specialized physical exercise have a more specific effect than general developmental exercises, which have a general training effect. The latter type of exercise is preferable for use for health purposes or in the initial stages of sports training.
Regular systematic aerobic exercise in the training zone (at the level of 50-80% of MOC) causes adaptive changes that improve oxygen delivery to muscles and other organs and tissues, its transport to tissues and utilization. There are muscular cardiorespiratory adaptations to aerobic exercise. Such adaptation, including both structural and functional changes, leads to improved delivery of oxygen and nutrients to contracting muscles, removal of metabolic products, and improves metabolic regulation in individual muscle fibers.
Adaptation of oxygen-utilizing systems (muscular adaptation)
· Selective sarcoplasmic hypertrophy of slow-twitch type I muscle fibers with an increase in their oxidative capacity.
· Increasing the density of capillaries in muscle fibers with an increase in the number of capillaries per fiber and the possibility of increasing the speed and volume of oxygen delivery to muscles, nutrients and removal of metabolic end products.
Increased myoglobin content in muscles
Increasing the ability of mitochondria to oxidative resynthesis of ATP
· increase in the size and number of mitochondria
· increased ability to oxidize lipids and carbohydrates
· increased use of lipids as energy fuels
Increased glycogen and triglyceride levels
Increased ability to demonstrate endurance
Myoglobin content in muscles. Animal studies show that muscle myoglobin levels can increase by up to 80% under the influence of exercise. Consequently, the potential for inactive muscle fiber to transport oxygen increases. The increase in the amount of myoglobin to increase the oxidative capacity of muscles at rest is small. The main effect of increasing myoglobin content occurs during muscle work and is associated with facilitating the diffusion of oxygen into the muscles from the blood.
Intramuscular energy reserves. A number of studies note that well-trained individuals at rest have a higher glycogen content (2.5 times compared to the untrained state). An increase in glycogen reserves may be due, in particular, to an increase in the sensitivity of muscle cells to insulin, which occurs under the influence of training. This promotes faster entry of glucose into muscle fibers. In endurance athletes, the transfer of glucose into muscle cells occurs approximately 60% more than in people leading a sedentary lifestyle. Only trained individuals were found to have significant reserves of glucose and glycogen in their skeletal muscles Oh.
Insulin also promotes a dose-dependent increase in blood flow to insulin-sensitive tissue. Because trained muscles have improved capillarization, this effect of insulin can increase oxygen delivery to them. Trained muscles have an increased ability to store glucose in the form of glycogen. The concentration of muscle glycogen will depend on the time elapsed after the training load and the amount of subsequent dietary carbohydrate intake. Higher muscle glycogen content in trained individuals may reflect the phenomenon of glycogen supercompensation.
Mitochondrial density in muscles and oxidative enzyme activity. IN
In trained muscles, mitochondria are characterized by a significantly higher ability to oxidatively reduce ATP. The oxidative capacity of skeletal muscles is increased due to a noticeable increase in the surface area of the mitochondrial membrane, as well as the number of mitochondria per unit area muscle tissue. On average, the size of skeletal muscle mitochondria in endurance athletes is 14-40% larger compared to untrained individuals leading a sedentary lifestyle. This specific feature appears only in the fibers involved in the execution of the training exercise.
The principle of specificity involves taking into account the characteristics of character and form various types activities that are determined by conditions and requirements for a person specific to each activity. Each type of activity, having a common structure with other types of activity, implements it in a special way, characteristic of a particular activity.
Methods for studying labor psychology
Occupational psychology as a branch of psychological science uses the entire arsenal of general psychological methods. Most methods are used in three independent plans:
For psychological analysis of professional activity;
To conduct a variety of applied research (vocational selection, professional consultation, rationalization of work and rest, etc.);
To study the personality of a particular employee, his abilities, motivation, states.
There are several classifications of work psychology methods. We can propose a classification of work psychology methods, which includes two large categories of methods:
a group of non-experimental methods, which is a targeted study of professional activity in natural conditions,
and a group of experimental methods, including a targeted study of the organization of conditions and methods of performing activities.
The first group includes two main methods: the observation method and the survey method, as well as a number of additional methods and auxiliary means.
The second group includes an experiment in two of its varieties: laboratory and natural (industrial), as well as a test method.
Non-experimental methods
Traditionally, there are two types of observation: external (direct) and internal (introspection).
External, or direct, observation allows us to describe the actions, techniques and movements of the employee, their compliance with regulatory goals.
To increase the objectivity and accuracy of observation, a number of additional techniques and methods are used, which primarily relate to recording the results of professional activities. The most common among them are photographs of the working day, timekeeping, and analysis of the products of labor activity.
A photograph of a working day is a temporary recording of the sequence of actions, changes in work and rest schedules, forced pauses in work, etc.
Timing - measuring the time of labor operations. It allows you to determine their duration, frequency of repetition at certain intervals, and the intensity of the labor process.
Analysis of the products of labor activity: these can be either material, documented products of activity, or functional (procedural) products of activity.
Option this method is also the analysis of erroneous actions, malfunctions, accidents and accidents.
Self-observation in labor psychology comes in two forms: professional self-report and participant observation (work method).
In the first case, the psychologist invites the specialist to think out loud during his activities, reciting each operation, each observation of the labor process.
In the second case, the psychologist himself becomes a student and, starting to study the profession, improves in it more and more.
This method is called the labor method in psychology. It began to be developed in domestic labor psychology in the 20s of the 20th century. Its essence lies in the combination, in the person of a psychologist, of a researcher who is able and willing to describe professional work, and a worker who knows it.
Survey methods are traditionally presented in two forms: oral survey (conversation, interview) and written survey (questionnaire).
Conversation is one of the widely used methods in work psychology and is used to cover a wide range of problems.
Questioning involves receiving written responses from respondents to pre-formulated questions, while the psychologist may not come into direct contact with employees.
Topic 1. Getting to know each other
Goals of the lesson: getting the participants to know each other, concentrating, relieving tension in an unfamiliar environment, paying attention to the partner. The first lesson begins with children getting acquainted with the room in which they will study the entire correctional course. Children can walk around and see everything that interests them. Then the children are offered...
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The study included all the main stages of the experiment identified by V.N. Druzhinin [Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. - 2nd ed., add. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002. P. 78-85.]. 1) Primary statement of the problem: - definition of the topic, goals and objectives; - selection of subject, object and method of research; - formulation of a psychological hypothesis. ...
