Knowing or at least imagining how the body works is necessary not only for every physician, but for every person in general. And if ten years ago anatomy could only be studied from textbooks or documentaries, then with the advent of technology virtual reality, it is not only that it has become available to everyone, but it has also become extremely exciting!
One of the best online 3d anatomy services is ZygoteBody. This is a completely unique resource for studying the human body, a kind of interactive online atlas. Previously, this project was called Google Body (which indicates that the company was involved in its creation), but for some reason it was later renamed while maintaining the same URL and functionality.
ZygoteBody in 3d mode recreates the human body (male or female, you can set it in the settings) and its systems: digestive, nervous, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, etc. Initially, the virtual body is represented as follows:
On the left side of the screen there is a vertical bar with a visual display of systems in the form of icons (muscles, bones, heart, brain, etc.). Switching to any of the icons, these systems and their components are “exposed” on the body. Here, for example, is a fragment of a heart vascular system person:
As a surgeon's scalpel is able to penetrate deeper and deeper into the human body, so you can turn on the 3d display from the most superficial muscles to the smallest nerves and blood vessels using the slider on the left side of the screen.
Navigation through the virtual human body is carried out using the mouse: it can be used to zoom in, zoom out, rotate, interact with body parts. If there is no mouse, then you can use the set of buttons in the upper left corner of the 3d atlas - for some, this option may seem even more convenient.
On any part of the body, you can click the left mouse button, while receiving detailed description from Wikipedia, hide it for a while, or put a mark to return to it later.
In ZygoteBody, you can study anatomy by searching for the desired organs and body parts. To do this, there is a window where you need to enter their name (in English). The search system itself will prompt the necessary options and immediately display them on the virtual body.
The online service 3d human anatomy requires registration before starting work. You will then be asked to select the appropriate tariff plan. There are only three of them:
- Lite - completely free
- Premium Monthly - with a monthly fee ($4) and some additional content and tools to get the job done
- Premium Yearly - billed for a year at once ($38) and the same set of features as the previous option
In most cases, I'm sure the free plan will suffice. Even if you want more, $4 a month isn't that much of a price after all when it comes to the right knowledge and a unique product.
The ZygoteBody service will be extremely useful not only for medical students and teachers of human anatomy and physiology, but also for everyone who is interested in how the human body works and wants to actually imagine how organs, muscles, bones, nerves, etc. really look like. . Virtual 3D mode is one of the best ways to do it today!
Anatomical designations.
Medial (edge, surface) - located closer to the median plane of the body.
Lateral (edge, surface) - lateral, located further from the median plane of the body.
Proximal (end, department) - located closer to the median plane of the body.
Distal (end, department) - located further from the median plane of the body.
Muscle head (beginning) - proximal tendon, fixed point.
Muscle tail (end) - distal tendon, moving point.
The abdomen of the muscle is the muscular contracting part.
The occipital-frontal muscle.
It has two abdomens - occipital and frontal.
Occipital belly Beginning: superior nuchal line of the occipital bone and mastoid process of the temporal bone.
Attachment: tendon helmet. Function: pulls the skin of the scalp back.
Frontal abdomen Beginning: tendon helmet. Attachment: eyebrow skin. Function: pulls the eyebrow up.
Muscle of the proud.
Beginning: nasal bone. Attachment: skin between eyebrows.
Function: forms transverse folds on the bridge of the nose.
The muscle that wrinkles the eyebrow.
Beginning: medial part of the superciliary arch. Attachment: eyebrow skin.
Function: draws eyebrows together, forms vertical folds over the bridge of the nose.
Content
Introduction
Anatomical designations
Basic movements
Part I. Muscles of the head
Mimic muscles
Chewing muscles
Part II. Neck muscles
Superficial muscles of the neck
Deep neck muscles
Part III. chest muscles
Superficial muscles of the chest
Deep chest muscles
Part IV. Abdominal muscles
Muscles of the lateral walls of the abdominal cavity
Muscles of the anterior abdominal wall
Muscles of the posterior abdominal wall
Part V. Muscles of the back
Superficial back muscles
Deep back muscles
Part VI. Muscles of the upper limb
muscles shoulder girdle
Muscles of the free upper limb
Shoulder muscles
Forearm muscles
Muscles of the hand
Part VII. Muscles of the lower limb
Muscles of the pelvic girdle
Muscles of the free lower limb
thigh muscles
Leg muscles
Foot muscles
Literature
Subject index
Free download e-book in a convenient format, watch and read:
Download the book Atlas of human muscles, tutorial, Vasiliev P.A., 2015 - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.
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The atlas of the muscles of the human body should be known to every training athlete, whether it is a beginner athlete, an advanced "jock" or a practicing coach. After all, without knowing the anatomy of the muscles and the principle of operation of each of the muscle groups, it is impossible to choose the right cycle of exercises for weight training.
After that, we will study in detail the physiology of the muscles and their structure, and also consider the exercises that work them out. Now let's get acquainted with each muscle group separately.
1. Back muscles
A large muscle group of paired muscles, which are divided into deep and superficial. From the point of view of bodybuilding, of greater interest are deep muscles, because they define visual effect(silhouette, drawing, massiveness of the back).
a) trapezius muscle (in everyday life "trapezium"). Responsible for lifting the shoulder girdle and bringing the shoulder blades together.
Exercises that are best for training: steps with a barbell or dumbbells, barbell to the chin narrow grip, deadlift.
b) the widest (in everyday life "wing"). It is thanks to this muscle that we get the triangular shape of the back. The broadest corresponds to bringing the shoulder to the body in a vertical plane.
Exercises to work out: pull-ups on the crossbar, traction of the block behind the head and to the chest.
c) diamond-shaped. It got its name because of its shape. It is located under the trapezium and is responsible for bringing the shoulder blades and lifting them up. Worked with wings and trapezium exercises such as deadlift, barbell row and dumbbell tilt, horizontal thrust block to the belt.
d) dentate muscle. They are located under the diamond-shaped. The main function is to raise and lower the ribs during breathing.
e) longus muscle back (in everyday life lumbar). Responsible for the extension of the body and tilt to the side.
4. Muscles of the shoulders
The main muscles of the shoulder girdle are the deltoids. They consist of three heads: front, middle and back. Each of the heads is responsible for the abduction of the hand:
a) the front head takes the arm forward and up
b) the middle head takes the hand to the side
c) the back head takes the hand back
You need to pump the deltoids with bench presses and dumbbells while sitting, pulling the bar to the chin with a wide grip, spreading the dumbbells to the sides, back and lifting forward.
5. Arm muscles
The main muscles of the arms are the biceps and triceps.
a) Biceps (biceps muscle of the arm). Consists of long and short heads. The main anatomical function is to bend the arm in elbow joint. It also participates in abduction (long head) and adduction (short) of the arm. Standing barbell raises, sitting and standing dumbbell raises, barbell and dumbbell raises through Scott's bench are suitable for working out. To shift the emphasis of the load towards the long head of the biceps, it is enough to use the grip according to the "hammer" principle, i.e. without turning the brush
b) Triceps ( triceps hands). It consists of external (long), middle (medial) and lateral heads. Responsible for extension of the arm in the elbow joint and abduction of the shoulder from the body.
Narrow-grip barbell presses, French bench and standing presses, arm extensions from behind the head, narrow-grip push-ups from the floor and bars, bench presses, extension of arms on the block are suitable for working out.
6. Abdominal muscles
In everyday life it's simple - press
a) rectus abdominis. Due to interruption by tendon threads, it is divided into "cubes". Three pairs of cubes located above are called the upper press. Lower Press has the shape of a triangle and is located below. The rectus abdominis muscles are responsible for twisting the body in the area lumbar spine, and the upper press presses thoracic region to the legs, and the lower one raises the lower body to the chest. Hence the features of the study top press by lifting the body, and the lower by lifting the legs.
b) external and internal oblique muscles. Carry out rotations of the body and help the rectus abdominis in twisting the body.
For pumping the abdominal muscles, bench lifts, crunches, leg raises are best suited.
According to various estimates, a person has from 600 to 750 different large and small muscles. The above is a description of the main muscles of the human body, which are most interesting to study in power types sports. Having received this knowledge, you can safely proceed to the choice of exercises for pumping the muscles you need.
©2014 Pavel Kurskoy
Let's look at the anatomy internal organs a person and his anatomical systems in pictures, as well as a photo of how they look in the human body.
(Human Anatomy, Photo #1.1)
(Human Anatomy, Photo #1.2)
Photo human anatomy, his nervous system. In one day, 3 mld. is delivered and processed to the central nervous system. messages. Our brain is forced to analyze all this and make a choice of what to ignore and what to react to, this happens in less than one second.
(Human Anatomy, Photo #2.1)
(Human Anatomy, Photo #2.2)
(Human Anatomy, Photo #2.3)
Body anatomy, photo of the circulatory system. During rest, the human heart pumps approximately five liters of blood through the body every minute. To carry out all that is necessary for life, the incredibly complex circulatory system uses about 60,000 miles of vessels.
(Human Anatomy, Photo #3.1)
(Human Anatomy, photo #3.2)
Man photo, anatomy of the digestive system. The duodenum is the center of the functioning of digestion, as it receives gastric hummus, as well as bile from the liver and enzymes from the pancreas. It is impossible for such complex channels to evolve simultaneously.
(Human Anatomy, photo #4.1)
(Human Anatomy, photo #4.2)
Human anatomy in pictures, muscular system. IN human body counted about 700 individual muscles coordinated with each other without any drawbacks, such a system could not have arisen gradually during evolution.
(Human Anatomy, photo #5.1)
(Human Anatomy, photo #5.2)
Photos anatomy of human bones. A human thigh bone can support one ton of weight, how is that possible? The structure of human bones is hollow inside and arranged the same as in the structures of bridges and buildings in our time.
(Human Anatomy, photo #6.1)
(Human Anatomy, photo #6.2)
human anatomy photo lymphatic systems s. Lymph nodes are the cleansing centers of the entire human body, they are responsible for transporting toxins and cleaning the internal environment. Did you know that thanks to regular exercise, the lymphatic system will be in order?
(Human Anatomy, Photo #7.1)
(Human Anatomy, photo #7.2)
The brain is the general of our body. In pictures Anatomy of the brain, its departments responsible for various functions of the body. The human brain is incredibly complex and weighs only 1kg to 2kg, depending on age.
(Human anatomy, photo #8.1)
(Human Anatomy, photo #8.2)
Anatomy photo of the heart- double pump with autonomic nervous system. The human heart, in order to maintain life, must beat without interruption and stops about 100,000 times a day.
(Human anatomy, photo #9.1)
(Human Anatomy, photo #9.2)
Human anatomy, lungs in the photo. In one day, our lungs carry 12,000 liters through them. air and 6.000 l. blood. Interestingly, not a single beneficial mutation was observed in the lungs by humans, but only harmful ones, this indicates the impossibility of lung evolution.
(Human Anatomy, photo #10.1)
(Human Anatomy, photo #10.2)
Picture anatomy of the human liver. The liver claims to be the largest glandular organ in the human body.
(Human Anatomy, photo #11.1)
(Human Anatomy, photo #11.2)
Digestive tract, anatomy photo. Interestingly, the length of the human intestine is from 7 to 10 meters.
(Human Anatomy, photo #12.1)
(Human anatomy, photo #12.2)
Photo anatomy of the kidney. In 24 hours, the kidneys clear toxins from up to 2 thousand liters of blood, while having 1 million filter elements.
(Human anatomy, photo #13.1)
(Human anatomy, photo #13.2)
Human anatomy, stomach photo. The human stomach can digest a substance that is much denser in composition than it is. It is amazing that he does not digest himself, although he consists of flesh!
(Human anatomy, photo #14.1)
Our nose can recognize a trillion smells. Our ear has 24,000 "hair" cells that convert vibrations into electrical impulses, we can hear very low acoustic levels. Our eyes are able to analyze about 50 thousand data at the same time. Our skin is waterproof, antibacterial, antifungal, elastic, flexible, sensitive, self-healing, able to absorb certain essential chemicals and reject others. It is porous, self-lubricating, produces vitamins, produces odorous substances, and can sense temperature, vibration, and pressure.
All these amazing facts of human anatomy simply scream to us not about evolution, but about the existence of a reasonable plan of the Super-wise Creator.
Anatomy is a field of biology (internal morphology). Anatomy studies the human body by systems (systematic anatomy). Accordingly, it consists of a number of sections: the doctrine of the skeletal system - osteology; the doctrine of bone joints, joints and ligaments - syndesmology and arthrology; doctrine of muscular system- myology; the doctrine of the vascular system - angiology; the doctrine of the nervous system - neurology; the doctrine of the sense organs - esthesiology. The anatomy of internal organs is allocated in a special section - splanchnology. Systematic anatomy is supplemented by topographic, or regional, describing primarily spatial relationships organs, which is of particular interest to . The study of the structure of the body with the naked eye is the subject of macroscopic anatomy. The use of a microscope allows you to study the fine structure of organs - microscopic anatomy.
The term " normal anatomy” emphasizes its difference from pathological anatomy, which studies changes in organs and systems in diseases. An important phase in the study of body structure is analysis, accompanied by careful description (descriptive anatomy). The study of the structure of the body in dynamics in connection with functions determines the content of functional anatomy, a special section of which is experimental anatomy. Features of the structure of the body and organs in the process of individual development of the organism are studied by age-related anatomy. Plastic anatomy, which studies the external forms and proportions of the human body, is of great practical importance for the fine arts. Comparative anatomy systematizes data on the anatomy of representatives of the animal world in order to identify the anatomical features of a person that have developed in the process of evolution.
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Modern anatomy has accumulated a large amount of material on the intravital structure of organs, obtained with the help of and (X-ray anatomy).
This section of the site is a textbook on human anatomy in pictures. It sets out questions on the history of anatomy, general questions, the structure of the musculoskeletal system, digestive, respiratory, genitourinary systems and endocrine glands. Further, the structure of the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system, the central nervous system with pathways, the peripheral nervous system, the head nerves, the autonomic nervous system, and the sense organs are described. The material is presented according to the systemic principle, in each section functional and topographic anatomical features, organogenesis, age features, developmental anomalies are noted, comparative anatomical data are given. The anatomical atlas is illustrated with color pictures and diagrams.
This textbook "Human Anatomy" is designed for students of medical institutes and corresponds to the curriculum. The material of the textbook is presented in such a way that particular questions are first dealt with, then embryological and phylogenetic data. Many sections contain information about the age, topographic and functional features of organs. The summary data on blood supply and innervation given in other textbooks is omitted in this manual due to the fact that during the study of internal organs, students are still unfamiliar with the structure of the circulatory and lymphatic systems, as well as nervous system. Such material is useful for physicians and should be presented in a manual or, in extreme cases, in a topographic anatomy textbook. In this manual, sections relating to the structure of bones, ligamentous apparatus and muscles are presented more briefly, and the structure of internal organs is presented in more detail. This is due to the fact that the doctor in practice often encounters diseases of the internal organs.
The manual has many illustrations that will help the assimilation of the material. Naturally, the goal of learning is not to memorize many anatomical terms which, without proper reinforcement, will be completely forgotten over time, and understanding general plan human structure. Anatomy is a part of biology, therefore the structure of all organs, systems, the living organism as a whole are considered in terms of their development and functional relationships. The study of human anatomy from the correct methodological positions from the first days of acquaintance with medicine should contribute to the formation of materialistic thinking and the doctor's worldview, since anatomy, together with biology, histology, physiology, pathology and biochemistry, forms the foundation of theoretical training. Like any science, anatomy includes issues of applied importance that are important for clinical medicine, biological questions necessary to expand the medical horizons and necessary in order to answer the natural question: “How does a person work?” There is an opinion that human anatomy is allegedly difficult. Our knowledge of the most perfect and wonderful creation of nature, which is man, is still incomplete today, but, as the history of anatomy shows, they were even more primitive 2000-3000 years ago. And if much has been achieved on the path of understanding the structure of man, it is only thanks to the mind of man in his curiosity. Once upon a time, scientists were happy if they were able to look into the belly of a creature similar to themselves, but now, having called on the help of modern achievements in applied and fundamental sciences, they reveal molecular combinations and cognize their own nature. On these paths there are many difficulties and many joys. Knowledge of the structure of man is the inner need of a student who has dedicated his life to the most noble cause - the deliverance of mankind from suffering, who has chosen the profession of a doctor, which, since ancient times, requires a person to give all the fullness of moral and intellectual forces.
Internal organsAs mentioned above, the internal organs provide the vegetative (vegetative) functions of the body, i.e. nutrition, respiration, excretion of metabolic products and reproduction. Let us get acquainted in more detail with their structure and activity, as well as with some conditions necessary for the normal operation of these organs. blood, lymph, the cardiovascular system
Man has undergone a complex biological evolution and has united a natural-natural being from the biological side, and a social-social being from the historical side. Its structure and functions are fully known by biology and social laws. Human anatomy belongs to the biological sciences. Human anatomy is a science that studies the origin, development, external and internal structure, functional features of a living person. Human anatomy aims to describe the shape, macroscopic structure, topography of organs, taking into account the sexual, individual, constitutional characteristics of the organism, as well as phylogenetic (from phylon - genus, genesis - development) and ontogenetic (from ontos - individual) moments of development. The study of the human structure is carried out from the standpoint of the whole organism. Anatomy also attracts the data of anthropology - the science of man. Anthropology examines a person not only age, gender and individual characteristics, but also racial, ethnic, professional, studies social influences, finds out the factors that determine historical development person. Thus, biology considers a person from evolutionary positions, which plays a role in shaping the materialistic worldview of the Soviet doctor.
Human anatomy is of great practical importance for medicine. Anatomy, together with histology, physiology, biochemistry and other disciplines, forms the basis of theoretical knowledge in the training of a doctor. The outstanding physiologist I. P. Pavlov noted that only by knowing the structure and functions of organs can we correctly understand the causes of diseases and the possibilities of their elimination. Without knowledge of the structure of a person, it is impossible to understand the changes caused by the disease, to establish the localization of the pathological process, to carry out surgical interventions, and, consequently, to correctly diagnose diseases and treat patients. On this occasion, 170 years ago, one of the outstanding Russian doctors E. Mukhin (1766-1850) spoke very figuratively: “A doctor who is not an anatomist is not only useless, but also harmful.” When, during the period of scholasticism and the influence of religion (13th century), doctors were forbidden to dissect corpses and study at least the basics of anatomy, the knowledge of doctors was so primitive that the public demanded permission from the church to dissect corpses.
What is the content of anatomy? The term "anatomy" comes from the ancient Greek word anatemnein - I dissect, dissect. This is explained by the fact that the first and main method of studying a person was the method of dismembering a corpse. At present, when the researcher uses many other methods to understand the internal and external structure of a living person, anatomy does not correspond to the content of its name. Nevertheless, even now, to describe the structure and topography of organs, the dissection of a corpse is used, which is one of the methods for studying the shape and structure. However, the structure of organs and their functions can be fully understood only by combining many research methods.
1. Using the method of anthropometry, one can measure height, the relationship of parts, establish body weight, constitution, individual structural features of a person, his race.
2. Using the preparation method, it is possible to dissect tissues in layers in order to study them and to isolate muscles, blood vessels, nerves and other formations visible to the naked eye from the surrounding tissues and fiber. This method allows you to obtain data on the shape of organs, their relationships.
3. By the method of injection, they are filled with a colored mass, diluted with drying oil, kerosene, gasoline, chloroform, ether or other solvents of the body cavity, the lumen of the bronchial tree, intestines, blood and lymphatic vessels. The method was first applied in the 16th century. Hardening masses in the form of latex (liquid rubber), polymers, molten wax or metal are also used for injection. Thanks to the injection method, knowledge about the structure of the vascular system has been greatly expanded. The injection method has proven to be especially useful in cases where subsequent corrosion, clarification of organs and tissues are carried out.
4. The corrosion method was first applied by Swammerdam (XVII century), and in Russia - by IV Buyalsky. An organ with blood vessels filled with a hardened mass was immersed in warm water and kept in it for a long time. The surrounding tissues rotted and only a cast of the hardened mass remained. This process can be accelerated when tissues are destroyed by concentrated acid or alkali, which is currently used. Using the corrosion method, you can see the true shape of the cavity where the mass was poured. The disadvantage of the method is that the impression of the cavity is not interconnected with the tissues.
5. The method of enlightenment. After tissue dehydration, the preparation is saturated with liquid. In this case, the refractive index of the impregnated fabric is close to the refractive index of the liquid. Injected blood vessels or stained nerves will be visible on such relatively clear preparations. The advantage of this method over the corrosion method is that the clarified preparations preserve the spatial arrangement of blood vessels or nerves.
6. The microscopic method, which uses a relatively small magnification, has now received widespread in anatomy. Thanks to the use of this method, it was possible to see formations that cannot be detected on histological sections. For example, using the method of microscopic anatomy, networks of circulatory and lymphatic capillaries, intraorgan plexus of blood vessels and nerves were revealed, the structure and shape of lobules, acini, etc. were clarified.
7. Using the methods of fluoroscopy and radiography, it is possible to study the intravital form and functional features of organs in a living person. These methods are also successfully used in the study of the corpse. Very widely in clinical practice and experiment, a combination of injection of contrast agents with subsequent radiography is used. Due to such contrasting, the studied formations are more clearly distinguished on the screen or imprinted on the x-ray film.
8. The method of transillumination by reflected rays is mainly used on a living person, for example, to study the blood capillaries of the skin, mucous membranes (capillaroscopy), retinal vessels.
9. The method of endoscopic examinations allows, with the help of instruments inserted through natural and artificial holes, to examine the color, relief of organs and mucous membranes.
10. The experimental method in anatomy is used to determine the functional significance of an organ, tissue or system. It allows one to establish the plasticity of tissues, their regenerative abilities, etc. With the help of an experiment, one can obtain a lot of new data on the restructuring of organs and the body in response to external influences.
11. The mathematical method is often used in anatomical studies, since, unlike other methods, it allows you to derive more reliable quantitative indicators. With the development of electronic computing technology, mathematical methods will take a leading place in morphological research.
12. The illustration method is used to convey an accurate documentary image or in the form of creating schematized drawings of anatomical structures. Accurate anatomical data can be documented by taking photographs and then making photo prints or black and white or color transparencies (slides) that are projected onto a screen. During preparation, many anatomical structures, especially those located in different planes, cannot be photographed. In these cases, an accurate sketch of the preparation is made. Sometimes it is necessary to create schemas. The creation of anatomical diagrams is due to the fact that neither photographs nor accurate drawings convey the internal architecture of the organ, for example, the structure of the glands, the topography of the pathways of the brain and spinal cord, etc. A schematic drawing is the most complex form of illustration preparation. This complexity is due to the fact that schemes are created on the basis of data obtained by preparation methods, histological, histochemical, electron diffraction and experimental studies and clinical observations. By synthesizing the data of many methods, it is possible to create schematic drawings.
Filming is also widely used in anatomical studies, especially when documenting moving objects. By this method, it is possible to document the sequence of opening and dissection of the corpse, topographic and anatomical data. The method of filming can clearly show functional disorders in experimental studies: the movement of blood, lymph, excretion of urine, saliva, the function of the musculoskeletal system, etc.
13. The method of ultrasound scanning is relatively new and is not yet sufficiently used in anatomical studies. It is currently used in clinical practice to identify the topography and shape of organs in pathological conditions, the position of the fetus in the womb, the relief of the cranial cavity, the spinal canal, purulent cavities, echinococcal bladders, stones of the biliary and urinary system, and sometimes tumor nodes.
14. The holography method is used to obtain a three-dimensional image of an object using laser beams. Represents a new methodological direction in technology scientific research and will play a significant role in the development of morphological science.
The most important requirement of science, based on the foundations of dialectical materialism, is the study of things and phenomena in their origin and development using the historical method. V.I. Lenin pointed out to scientists that things should be looked at from historical positions: “... Approaching the issue from the point of view of science is not to forget the main historical connection, history arose, what main stages in its development this phenomenon went through, and from the point of view of this development, look at what this thing has become now ”The historical approach uses materials from anthropology, paleontology, comparative anatomy, embryology, which allows us to study a person as a being of social social, which has undergone a complex evolution, actively adapting to nature and changing its psychophysiological characteristics under the influence of social conditions for the development of society.
Human anatomy can be methodically studied in various ways: by individual systems (systematic anatomy); describe only the external form of a person (plastic, or relief, anatomy); to study the structure of organs and systems depending on their functions (functional anatomy); to study the relative position of systems and organs, taking into account age and individual characteristics (topographic anatomy), to study the structure of organs in different age periods (age anatomy).
Systematic anatomy mainly outlines the form, structure, topography, age characteristics, individual differences, development and anomalies, phylogenetic features for individual systems. A similar approach to the study of anatomy is most appropriate for those who are not familiar with the subject, since the complex is decomposed into its constituent parts.
Plastic anatomy contains information about the external forms of the body, which are determined by the development of the bone skeleton, protruding tubercles and ridges, palpable through the skin, contours muscle groups and muscle tone, elasticity and color of the skin, the depth of its folds, the thickness of the subcutaneous fatty tissue. The state of the internal organs is studied only to such an extent as to show how this affects the external structure. Plastic anatomy is of applied importance not only for artists and sculptors, but also for doctors, since external forms can also be used to judge the state of human health.
Functional anatomy complements the data of descriptive anatomy. It sets the task of studying the structure of organs and systems in unity with function, considering the human body in dynamics, revealing the mechanisms of restructuring the form under the influence of external factors.
Topographic anatomy studies the structure of a person in separate areas, the spatial relationship of organs and systems, taking into account individual and age features. Elements of topographic anatomy necessarily accompany a systematic presentation of the material.
Age anatomy studies the structure of a person in different age periods. Under the influence of age and external factors, the structure and shape of human organs change with a certain pattern.
In children of the first years of life, adults and the elderly, there are significant differences in anatomical structure. In clinical practice, even independent disciplines have arisen, for example, pediatrics - the science of the child, geriatrics - the science of the elderly.
Together with the descriptive human anatomy, it is necessary to study (at least in general terms) the anatomy of invertebrates and vertebrates - comparative anatomy. Based on the data of comparative anatomy, one can understand the evolution and development of living beings. Using comparative anatomical and embryological data, which are presented mainly at the stage of organogenesis, it is possible to find common features that contribute to understanding the history of the development of man, his organs and systems.
