Glossary on the basic concepts of plastic anatomy. Basic anatomical terms

30.11.201927.05.2017

International anatomical nomenclature. To designate areas of the body, organs and their parts, various concepts in anatomy, special terms are used in Latin, the list of which is called the anatomical nomenclature ( Nomina anatomica). The first anatomical nomenclature in Latin was adopted in 1895 at the Congress of the German Anatomical Society in Basel, which is why it is called the Basel Anatomical Nomenclature.

Crimean School of Anatomists

GelwigRoman Ivanovich

ZYABLOV Vladimir Ilyich

WeaverVladislav Viktorovich

bobbinsViktor Vladimirovich

petrovGrigory Nikolaevich

PikalyukVasily Stepanovich

Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department since 2001

nomenclature (BNA). The longest-used international anatomical nomenclature in Latin was adopted at VI International congress anatomists in Paris (1955) and was called the Parisian Anatomical Nomenclature (PNA). This nomenclature lasted until 1997 and was replaced by a new international anatomical nomenclature (S-PNA) in Sao Paulo (Brazil). Based on the international anatomical nomenclature, some countries are developing national anatomical nomenclatures. The first official list of Ukrainian terms in the International Anatomical Nomenclature was published in 2001 under the editorship of I. I. Bobrik and V. G. Koveshnikov - "International Anatomical Nomenclature" Ukrainian standard.

The list of anatomical nomenclatures that were used in different periods of the formation of anatomy can be grouped as follows:

- Basel anatomical nomenclature (BNA) - 1895;

- Jena Anatomical Nomenclature (YNA) - 1936;

- Parisian Anatomical Nomenclature (PNA) - 1955;

- modern anatomical nomenclature (Sao Paulo, Brazil - S-PNA) - 1997;

-International anatomical nomenclature (Ukrainian standard) - 2001, Kyiv.

General anatomical terminology. Anatomical terminology is divided into general anatomical terminology, reflecting the general features of organs, and private, including the names of specific anatomical structures.

For the first lesson normal anatomy of a person, students are invited to learn the necessary list of anatomical Latin terms, which includes the terms general purpose, lines human body, parts and departments of the human body and the terms of some human organs (tab. 1.1-1.4).

Table 1.1

General terms

	Additional
	Anatomy

Anterior, ventralis	Front
	Hole
	Apical



	Base
	Short

	Tail


	Central
	Combined


	Complex

	Coronary

	Head



	Distal

	Outer


	bender

	Frontal, frontal
	Holotopia
	Horizontal
	Impression


	Interior
	Intermediate
	plate
	Lateral, lateral


	Oblong



	Medial
	Median



	Occipital
	organism
	Palmar




	Plantar
	Plane
Posterior, dorsalis
	offshoot
	Deep
	pronator
	Proximal



	Sagittal


	Skeletotopia

	Spongy
	Substance

	Surface

	Arch support

	syntopia
	Transverse
	Triangle

	shell
	Vertical

Planes and axes in the human body. To indicate the position of the body in space, the location of its parts relative to each other in anatomy, the concepts of planes and axes are used. It is customary to consider the initial position of the body when a person is standing, legs together, palms facing forward. Three planes are conditionally drawn through the human body: horizontal, sagittal and frontal (Fig. 1.1).

1.Sagittal plane(from lat. sagitta - arrow) divides the body into right and left parts. The sagittal plane, which divides the human body into two symmetrical halves, is called the median.

2. Frontal plane(from Latin frons - forehead) runs perpendicular to the sagittal and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

3. horizontal plane divides the body into upper and lower parts.

According to the planes, directions (axes) can be distinguished that allow the organs to be oriented relative to the position of the body.

1.vertical axis is directed along the body of a standing person. Along this axis are the spinal column and the organs lying along it (esophagus, spinal cord, thoracic duct, thoracic and abdominal parts of the aorta).

2. Longitudinal axis- coincides with the vertical axis, which is also oriented along the human body, regardless of its position in space, or along a limb (leg, arm), or along an organ.

3.Sagittal axis located in the anterior-posterior direction, like the sagittal plane.

4. Frontal (transverse) axis- in direction coincides with the frontal plane. This axis is oriented right to left or left to right.

Movements in the joints are carried out around the named axes (in the shoulder, hip joints they are performed around all three axes, and in the interphalangeal joints they are performed around the frontal axis).

human body lines carried out to determine the projection of the boundaries of the heart, lungs, liver, pleura and other organs (Fig. 1.2).

Rice. 1.1 Axes and planes in the human body:

1 – Plana sagittalis, sagittal plane; 2- plana frontalis, frontal plane; 3- plana horizontalis, horizontal plane; 4 - axis transverse, transverse axis; 5 - axis sagittalis, sagittal axis; 6 – axis verticalis, vertical axis.

Anterior median line (linea mediana anterior). Passes along the front surface of the human body, on the border between its right and left halves.

Posterior median line (linea mediana posterior). It runs along the spinal column, above the tops of the spinous processes of the vertebrae.

sternal line (linea sternalis) goes along the edge of the sternum.

peristernal line (linea parasternales) goes in the middle of the distance between the sternal and midclavicular lines.

midclavicular line (linea medioclavicularis) passes through the middle of the clavicle. Often this line coincides with the position of the nipple of the mammary gland, and therefore, it is also called teat line(linea mamillaris).

anterior axillary line (linea axillaris anterior) starts from the fold of the same name (plica axillaris anterior) in the axillary region and runs along the body.

Middle axillary line (linea axillaris media) starts from the deepest point of the axillary fossa.

Posterior axillary line (linea axillaris posterior) from the fold of the same name (plica axillaris posterior).

scapular line (linea scapularis) passes through the inferior angle of the scapula.

Paravertebral line (linea paravertebralis)- along the spinal column through the costotransverse joints (transverse processes of the vertebrae).

Rice. 1.2 Lines of the human body; A - front view; B - rear view:

1 – linea mediana anterior, anterior median line; 2- linea sternalis, sternal line; 3- linea parasternalis, peristernal line; 4 - linea medioclavicularis, midclavicular line; 5 - linea mediana posterior, posterior midline; 6- linea paravertebralis, paravertebral line; 7- linea scapularis, scapular line.

Parts and departments of the human body(fig. 1.3, tab. 1.2). There are the following parts body, partes corporis humeri: head, caput, neck, cervix, torso, corpus, limbs, membrane: top, membrum superior, and bottom, membrum inferior.

Rice. 1.3 Parts and departments of the human body, surfaces and ends.

Each part of the body is divided into departments:

- head - on the brain part of the skull, cranium, and the face facies;

- neck - on the back - neck, Nucha, and the front - the actual neck, cervix;

- torso - on the back, dorsum, breast, thorax, belly, abdomen;

- upper limb - on the shoulder, brachium, elbow, cubitus, forearm, anterbrachium, brush, manus,

- lower limb - on the thigh, Femur, knee, Genu, shin, crus, foot, pes.

Anatomical terminology serves to accurately describe the location of body parts, organs and other anatomical structures in space and in relation to each other in the anatomy of humans and other animals with a bilateral type of body symmetry, a number of terms are used. Moreover, in human anatomy there are a number of terminological features that are described here and in a separate article.

Terms used

Terms describing the position relative to the center of mass and the longitudinal axis of the body or body outgrowth:

Abaxial(antonym: adaxial)- located farther from the axis.
Adaxial(antonym: abaxial)- located closer to the axis.
Apical(antonym: basal)- located at the top.
Basal(antonym: apical)- located at the base.
Distal(antonym: proximal)- distant.
Lateral(antonym: medial)- side.
Medial(antonym: lateral)- middle.
Proximal(antonym: distal)- near.

Terms describing the position relative to the main parts of the body:

aboral(antonym: adoral)- located on the pole of the body opposite the company.
Adoralny(antonym: aboral)- located near the mouth.
Ventral(antonym: dorsal)- abdominal.
Dorsal(antonym: ventral)- dorsal.
Caudal(antonym: cranial)- tail, which is located closer to the tail or to the rear end of the body.
Cranial(antonym: caudal)- the main one, which is located closer to the head or to the front end of the body.

Main planes and cuts:

Sagittal- a cut running in the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body, dividing it into the right and left sides.
Parasagittal- a cut parallel to the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Frontal- an incision along the anterior-posterior axis of the body perpendicular to the sagittal.

Routes of drug administration:

orally- through the mouth.
intradermally- intradermally.
sublingually- under the tongue.
rectally- through the anus
intravenously
subcutaneously
intramuscular

Directions

Animals usually have a head at one end of the body, and a tail at the opposite end. The head end in anatomy is called cranial, cranialis(cranium - skull), and the tail is called caudal caudalis(cauda - tail). On the head itself, they are guided by the nose of the animal, and the direction to its tip is called Rostral, rostralis(rostrum - beak, nose). "Rostral" describes a feature that touches the beak (rostrum), or that is related to the head or front of the body, towards the rostrum. Usually synonymous with "front", but not always. In the description of the features human head, for example, the term "anterior" is ambiguous and "cranial" (towards the head) is meaningless, so "beak-shaped" is used instead. Accordingly, the term "caudal" (towards the tail) cannot be used to denote the opposite direction. "Rostral" is for head structures, and there is no tail. The term "occipital" might perhaps be more accurate, but it is practically not used.

The surface or side of an animal's body that points upwards against gravity is called dorsal, dorsalis(dordum - back), and the opposite side of the body, is closest to the ground when the animal is in a natural position, that is, walks, flies or swims, - ventral, ventralis(venter - belly). For example, the dorsal fin of a dolphin is located dorsally, and the udder of a cow ventral side.

For limbs fair concepts: proximal, proximalis- for a point close to the body, and distal, distalis- for a remote point. The same time frame for internal organs mean distant from the place of the beginning of this organ (for example: "distal segment of the jejunum").

Rights, dexters, And left, sinister, the sides are indicated as they might appear from the point of view of the animal being examined. Term homolaterally less often ipsilateral denotes a location on the same side, and contralateral- located on the opposite side. Bilateral- means location on both sides.

All descriptions in human anatomy are based on the belief that the body is in an anatomical stance position, that is, the person stands straight, arms down, palms facing forward.

Areas closer to the head are called top; Further - lower. Upper, superior, corresponds to the concept cranial, and the bottom inferior,- concept caudal. Front, anterior, and rear posterior, correspond to the concepts ventral And dorsal. Moreover, the timing front and rear regarding quadrupeds are incorrect, the concept should be used ventral And dorsal.

Designation of directions

Formations lying closer to the median plane - medial, medialis, and those further away lateral, lateralis. Formations located on the median plane are called middle, medianus. For example, the cheek is located more lateral behind the wing of the nose, and the tip of the nose - middle structure. If an organ lies between two adjacent structures, it is called intermediate intermediate.

Formations located closer to the body will proximal on distant distal. These concepts are also valid in the description of organs. For example, distal end of the ureter enters the bladder.

Central -, what is in the center of the body or anatomical region; peripheral- external, remote from the center.

When describing the position of organs lying at different depths, use terms: deep, profundus, And surface, superficialis.

concept external, externus, And interior, internus, used to describe the position of structures relative to various body cavities.

Term visceral, visceralis(viscerus - inside) denote belonging and proximity to any organ. A parietal, parietalis(paries - wall) - means the same, which is related to any wall. For example, visceral The pleura covers the lungs while parietal The pleura covers the inside of the chest wall.

Designation of directions on the limbs

The surface of the upper limb along the palm is designated by the term palmaris - palmar, and the lower limb along the sole - plantaris - plantar.

The edge of the forearm on the side of the radius is called radiation, radialis, and from the side of the ulna - elbow, ulnaris. On the lower leg, the edge where the tibia is located is called tibial, tibialis, and the opposite edge, where the fibula lies - fibula, fibularis.

planes

In the anatomy of animals and humans, the concept of the main projection planes is accepted.

The vertical plane divides the body into left and right parts;
the frontal plane divides the body into dorsal and ventral parts;
the horizontal plane divides the body into cranial and caudal parts.

Application in human anatomy

The ratio of the body to the main projection planes is important in medical imaging systems such as computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography. In such cases, the body of a person who is in anatomical stand, conventionally placed in a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system. At the same time, the plane YX turns out to be horizontal, the axis X located in the anterior-posterior direction, the axis Y goes from left to right or right to left, and axis Z goes up and down, that is, along the human body.

sagittal plane, XZ, separates the right and left halves of the body. A special case of the sagittal plane is middle plane, it runs exactly in the middle of the body, dividing it into two symmetrical halves.
front plane, or coronal, yz, also located vertically, perpendicular to the sagittal, it separates the front (ventral) part of the body from the back (dorsal) part.
horizontal, axial, or transverse plane, xy, perpendicular to the first two and parallel to the surface of the earth, it separates the overlying parts of the body from the underlying ones.

movements

Term bending, flexio, indicate the movement of one of the bone levers around front axle, at which the angle between the bones that articulate decreases. For example, when a person sits down, when bending in knee joint the angle between the thigh and lower leg decreases. Movement in the opposite direction, that is, when the limb or trunk is straightened, and the angle between the bone levers increases, is called extension, extensio.

An exception is the ankle (supratalar) joint, in which extension is accompanied by upward movement of the fingers, and during flexion, for example, when a person stands on tiptoe, the fingers move downward. Therefore, flexion of the foot is also called plantar flexion, and the extension of the foot is denoted by the term dorsal flexion.

Movements around sagittal axis is cast, adductio And branch, abductio. Adduction - movement of the bone towards the median plane of the body or (for fingers) to the axis of the limb, abduction characterizes the movement in the opposite direction. For example, when the shoulder is abducted, the arm rises to the side, and the adduction of the fingers leads to closure.

Under appeal, rotation, understand the movement of a body part or bone in its longitudinal axis. For example, the rotation of the head is due to the rotation cervical spine. The rotation of the limbs is also denoted by the terms pronation, pronation, or inward rotation, And supination, supinatio, or outward rotation. During pronation, the palm of the freely hanging upper limb returns backwards, and during supination - anteriorly. Pronation and supination of the hand are carried out due to the proximal and distal radio-ligament joints. lower limb rotates around its axis mainly due to hip joint pronation orients the toe of the foot inward, and supination orients it outward. If, when moving around all three axes, the end of a limb describes a circle, such a movement is called circular, circumductio.

Anterograde they call movement along the natural flow of fluids and intestinal contents, while movement against the natural flow is called retrograde. Thus, the movement of food from the mouth to the stomach anterograde, and with vomiting - retrograde.

Mnemonic rule for remembering the terms of supination and pronation

To remember the direction of movement of the hand during supination and pronation, an analogy is usually used with with the phrase "I'm bringing the soup, I spilled the soup."

Therefore, students are asked to stretch their hand forward with the palm up (forward with a hanging limb) and imagine that he is holding a bowl of soup on his hand - "I bring soup"- supination. Then he returns his hand palm down (back with a free-hanging limb) - "soup spilled"- pronation.

State educational institution of higher professional education "Orenburg State Medical Academy" of the Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation

L.M. Zheleznov

HUMAN ANATOMY

IN TERMS, CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

handbook for medical students

Orenburg

UDC 611 (075.8) LBC 28.86ya7

Reviewers:

Gelashvili P.A., Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Human Anatomy, State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education, Samara State Medical University, Balandina I.A., Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Normal, Topographic

and clinical anatomy, Operative Surgery GOU VPO PSMA Roszdrav.

Zh50 Zheleznov, L.M. Human anatomy in terms, concepts and classifications: a guide for medical students / L.M. Zheleznov. - Orenburg,: Orgma, 2011. - 284 p.

The reference book contains more than 2200 anatomical terms and concepts and more than 50 anatomical classifications. Designed for medical students studying human anatomy.

The rights to this publication belong to the Orenburg State Medical Academy. Reproduction and distribution in any form of part or the whole publication may not be carried out without the written permission of the copyright holder.

UDC 611 (075.8) LBC 28.86ya7

FOREWORD

Making it hard is easy.

But to do it simply is very difficult.

G.S. Shpagin, Russian gunsmith

Anatomical terms are the cornerstone in the study of human anatomy. The handbook offered to the reader, in our opinion, is distinguished by a number of features. First of all, this is not a short synopsis of well-known textbooks and manuals. Unlike conceptual dictionaries, the terms in it are not arranged in alphabetical order, but in accordance with the didactic order of study in sections and topics of the lecture course and practical exercises. This determined the algorithm for presenting the material and formed a certain methodological approach: each term is a key moment in the presentation of a particular issue. The author of the manual assumes that the student has knowledge gleaned from textbooks, atlases, lectures and from practical activities in the anatomical theater.

The proposed manual seems to be useful for preparing for generalizing forms of intermediate and final control, final classes and exams.

GENERAL PART OF PARS COMMUNIS

DEFINITION OF ANATOMY AS A SCIENCE

ANATOMY (from Greek anatomё - dissection, dismemberment) - the science of the form and structure of individual organs, systems and the body as a whole; part of morphology (Great Soviet Encyclopedia).

ANATOMY (anatomia; from Greek anatomё - dissection, dismemberment) - biomedical science that studies the shape and structure of the human and animal body, as well as its constituent organs in connection with their function and development; part of morphology (Encyclopedic Dictionary of Medical Terms).

MORPHOLOGY (morphologia; Greek morphё - appearance, form + Greek logos - teaching, science)

in biology - a complex of sciences that study the shape and structure of organisms in their onto- and phylogenesis; includes anatomy, histology (the science of tissues), cytology (the science of cells), embryology (the science of the development of the embryo), pathological anatomy.

ANATOMY - (Greek), actual dissection,- the science of the structure of organic beings (Brockhaus and Efron Dictionary).

ANATOMY - (Greek) - the art of dismembering organisms; the doctrine of the form and structure of plant (phytotomy) and animal (zootomy) organisms, as well as human body(anthropotomy) (Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron).

ANATOMY is the science of the structure of the human body, the structure of all those parts of it, as a result of the combination of which a person can live, sending all his functions (S.I. Lebedkin, P.Ya. Gerke).

ANATOMY is the science of the forms and internal structure of the body of a living person (D.A. Zhdanov, 1979).

ANATOMY (dismemberment) - the science of the form and structure of the body in its development and in interaction with the external environment; one of the first methods of studying corpses was dismemberment (T. Donat).

HUMAN ANATOMY- the science of the shape and structure of the human body (G.F. Ivanov). HUMAN ANATOMY called the science that studies the form and structure of the human

of the organism (and its constituent organs and systems) and investigating the patterns of development of this structure in connection with the function and the environment surrounding the organism (M.G. Prives).

HUMAN ANATOMY- the science of the structure of organs, organ systems and the human body as a whole, considered from the standpoint of development, functionality and constant interaction with the environment (I.V. Gaivoronsky).

HUMAN ANATOMY is the science of the origin and development, forms and structure of the human body (M.R. Sapin).

NORMAL HUMAN ANATOMY- the science of the structure of an organism in its development, taking into account the conditions of existence (i.e. the action of environmental factors) (V.N. Tonkov).

CLASSIFICATION OF ANATOMY SCIENTIFIC ANATOMICAL DISCIPLINES:

SYSTEMATIC (NORMAL, DESCRIPTIVE) ANATOMY - anatomy, which studies and describes the structure, shape and location of organs and their development by systems;

TOPOGRAPHICAL (REGIONAL, REGIONAL) ANATOMY I am an anatomy that studies the structure, shape and relationship of organs in areas of the body, with special attention being paid to the mutual spatial arrangement of anatomical formations;

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY- anatomy, which studies the patterns of structure and development of organisms and their organs by comparing animals of various systematic groups; allows you to find out the history of the development of the human body;

PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY- anatomy that studies the structure, shape and location of organs in an organism affected by pathological processes and diseases.

DIRECTIONS OF ANATOMY:

A) BY METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES -

EXPERIMENTAL ANATOMY- a section of anatomy that studies morphological changes in organs and systems under experimental conditions;

AGE ANATOMY- a section of anatomy that studies age-related morphological changes in organs and systems and the body as a whole;

TYPICAL ANATOMY- the direction of anatomy, which studies the structural features of organs and systems, depending on the type of human physique;

EVOLUTIONARY ANATOMY- a section of anatomy that studies the structure and function of organs and systems from the standpoint of the evolutionary development of wildlife;

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY- the direction of anatomy, which studies the structure of organs and systems in connection with their function;

DYNAMIC ANATOMY- a section of anatomy that studies the movements of the human body and the morphological changes in the body that occur.

B) FOR PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS -

ENVIRONMENTAL ANATOMY- a section of anatomy that studies the structural features of organs depending on the environmental conditions of the organism;

PLASTIC ANATOMY- an applied section of anatomy that studies the statics and dynamics of the external forms of the body in order to understand their expressiveness and reflection in the fine arts;

PROJECTION ANATOMY- applied section of anatomy, which studies the projection of anatomical structures on the surface of the human body;

CLINICAL (APPLIED) ANATOMY - the direction of anatomy, which studies the structure and topography of organs in relation to the needs of clinical medicine; VETERINARY ANATOMY - a direction of anatomy that studies the structure and topography of the organs of domestic and farm animals in relation to requests

Anatomical terminology is a set of different words meaning certain concepts used in anatomy. It is subdivided into general anatomical terminology, expressing the general features of organs, private, including the names of specific anatomical formations, and service terminology, combining adjectives that determine the relative position of organs. There are national anatomical terminologies (Russian, German, English, etc.) and international, mostly of Latin-Greek origin.
The list of names accepted in any science makes up the nomenclature. The first anatomical nomenclature in Latin was adopted in 1895 at the congress of the German Anatomical Society in Basel, which is why it was called the Basel Anatomical Nomenclature (BNA). In 1955, at the VI International Congress of Anatomists in Paris, a unified International Latin anatomical nomenclature was approved, called the Parisian (PNA). It includes more than 5,000 Latin terms relating to all organ systems of the human body.
When considering the topography of organs, vessels and nerves, conditional planes and axes are used, as well as terms indicating the location and direction of body parts. There are three conditional planes: horizontal, frontal and sagittal. The horizontal plane is drawn horizontally and divides the organ into upper and lower parts. The frontal plane passes through the body vertically and transversely, for example, through both hip joints. It divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. The sagittal plane is also drawn vertically, but longitudinally from front to back. It divides the body into left and right parts. If the sagittal plane runs through the middle of the body, it is called the median plane. Axes can be drawn through these planes: vertical, going from top to bottom, sagittal - from front to back, and frontal, transverse - from left to right.
Terms indicating the location of organs and the direction of body parts include the following:
verticalis - vertical,
horizontalis - horizontal,
medianus - middle,
sadittalis - sagittal,
frontalis - frontal,
transversus - transverse,
medialis - medial (closer to the middle),
intermedius - intermediate,
lateralis - lateral (lateral),
anterior - front,
medius - medium,
posterior - back,
ventralis - abdominal, ventral,
dorsalis - dorsal, dorsal,
internus - internal,
externus - external,
dexter - right,
sinister - left,
longitudinalis - longitudinal,
cranialis - cranial,
caudalis - tail,
superior - upper,
inferior - lower,
superficialis - superficial,
profundus - deep,
proximalis - proximal (closer),
distalis - distal (more remote).

Before proceeding to the study of the actual structure nervous system, it is necessary to consider the terminology used in anatomy and physiology to refer to the location of structures. When studying the structure of the brain and other structures, we will consider them in section (sections). These sections are usually performed in three mutually perpendicular planes (frontal, horizontal and sagittal) on different levels(Fig. 1).

Sagittal sections are carried out from top to bottom and from front to back parallel to the plane of the sagittal * suture of the skull, dividing it into symmetrical right and left halves. The main sagittal section is the central section passing through the center of the spine and the sagittal suture of the skull. All other sagittal sections are called lateral (lateral). To accurately indicate the place of their passage, indicate the anatomical structures through which they pass, or indicate the distance in centimeters from the central sagittal section, as well as the side (left or right).

Frontal sections are carried out in planes parallel to the plane of the forehead (from left to right and from top to bottom). Horizontal sections are carried out in a horizontal plane (from left to right and from front to back). The place of passage of the frontal and horizontal sections must be specified by indicating the structures through which these sections are carried out.

In addition, the following terms are often used in anatomy:

« Medial» - median, central;

« Located more medially than anything» talk about a structure located between the specified landmark and the central axis of the body;

« Ventral"- located closer to the stomach (front surface);

« Dorsal" - located closer to the back ( rear surface);

« Proximal"- located closer to the center (for example, to the central axis of the body);

« Afferent"- bringing (used in relation to the neuron through which impulses enter the central nervous system);

« efferent"- outgoing (used in relation to the neuron, through which the impulses leave the central nervous system);

« Ipsilateral"- located, or passing (about the nerve pathways) on the side of the same name;

« contralateral"- located, or passing (about the nerve pathways) on the opposite side;

Clusters of neurons are called ganglions or ganglia, and large groups of nerve fibers running in the same direction are called ways or tracts(lat. " tractus" - path).

To indicate the localization of structures relative to the central axis of the body (spine), the following terms are used in anatomy:

« cranial" (Greek " cranium" - skull) and " rostral"(from lat. " rostrum"- beak, bow of the ship) - when describing structures that are closer to the head (to the upper body);