Gladiator fights in Ancient Rome (22 photos). What were the types and classification of gladiators in Rome Name of gloves for gladiator fights cysta

The picture below shows: Hoplomachus, III century. AD.

Gladiator (from Latin gladius - “sword”, “gladius”) - the name of fighters in Ancient Rome who fought among themselves or with animals for the amusement of the public in special arenas.

The first gladiators, strictly speaking, were not such, but were only ordinary slaves and convicted criminals. Later, schools were established to train gladiators, and in the hope of fame and fortune, their ranks were filled with people from all classes. Huge amphitheaters were built especially for gladiator fights.

Gladiators used various types of weapons. They fought most often one on one. If one of the opponents was wounded, then, according to the rules, his fate was in the hands of the spectators. If they wanted to keep him alive, they waved handkerchiefs in the air or held their thumbs up. If their thumbs were pointing down, the victim was destined to die.

There were cases when citizens, in pursuit of fame and money, abandoned their own freedom and became gladiators. Among them there were even female gladiators, when in 63 AD. er. Emperor Nero issued a decree allowing free women to participate in gladiatorial tournaments. After him, Pozzuoli allows Ethiopian women to fight. And Emperor Domiziano in 89 brings dwarf gladiators into the arena.

In order to become a gladiator, it was necessary to take an oath and declare oneself “legally dead.” From that moment on, the fighters entered another world, where cruel laws of honor reigned. The first of them was silence. The gladiators explained themselves in the arena with gestures. The second law is full compliance with the rules of honor. So, for example, a gladiator who fell to the ground and realized his complete defeat was obliged to remove his protective helmet and expose his throat to the enemy’s sword or plunge his knife into his own throat.

Over time, the Romans began to get tired of such fights and they began to invent new spectacles. Gladiators had to fight lions, tigers and other wild animals.

Many efforts were made to put an end to these terrible performances, but this was only achieved in 500 AD. Emperor Theodoric.

Types of gladiators

1. Andabat. They were dressed in chain mail, like the eastern cavalry (cataphracts), and helmets with visors without slits for the eyes. The Andabats fought each other in much the same way as knights did in medieval jousting tournaments, but without being able to see each other.
2. Bestiary. Armed with a javelin or dagger, these fighters were originally not gladiators, but criminals (noxii), sentenced to fight with predatory animals, with a high probability of death for the condemned. Bestiaries later became highly trained gladiators, specializing in combat with a variety of exotic predators using javelins. The battles were organized in such a way that the animals had little chance of defeating the bestiary.
3. Bustuary. These gladiators fought in honor of the deceased in ritual games during the funeral rite.
4. Dimacher( from Greek di - "two" and machaer - "sword") . Two swords were used, one in each hand. They fought without a helmet and shield, with two daggers. They were dressed in a short soft tunic, their arms and legs were bandaged with tight bandages, and sometimes they wore greaves.
5. Equit( pl. equites, from Lat. equus - “horse”) . In early descriptions, these lightly armed gladiators were dressed in scale armor, carried a medium-sized round cavalry shield (parma equestris), a brimmed helmet, without a crest, but with two decorative tassels. During the Empire, they wore forearm armor (manika) on right hand, a sleeveless tunic (which distinguished them from other gladiators who fought bare-chested), and a belt. The Equites began the battle on horseback, but after they threw their spear (hasta), they dismounted and continued the fight with a short sword (gladius). Typically, equites only fought other equites.
6. Gaul. They were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield.
7. Essedarius ("chariot fighter", from the Latin name for the Celtic chariot - "esseda"). They were probably first brought to Rome by Julius Caesar from Britain. Essedarii are mentioned in many descriptions starting from the 1st century AD. e. Since there are no depictions of the Essedarii, nothing is known about their weapons or fighting style.
8. Hoplomachus (from the Greek “οπλομ?χος” - “armed fighter”). They wore a quilted, trouser-like leg garment, possibly made of canvas, a loincloth, a belt, greaves, forearm armor (maniku) on the right arm, and a brimmed helmet with a stylized griffin on the crest, which may have been decorated with a tassel of feathers at the top and single feathers on each side. They were armed with a gladius and a very small round shield made from a single sheet of thick bronze (examples from Popmpaea have survived). They were fielded in battles against the Mirmillons or Thracians. It is possible that the Hoplomachus descended from the earlier Samnites after it became "politically incorrect" to use the name of a people who had become friendly to the Romans.
9. Laquearius (“lasso fighter”). Laquearii may have been a type of retiarii that tried to catch their opponents using a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net.
10. Murmillo( from Greek mormylos - "sea fish") . They wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest (from the Latin “mormylos” - “sea fish”), as well as forearm armor (maniku), a loincloth and belt, and a greave on right leg, thick windings covering the top of the foot, and very short armor with a notch for padding on the top of the foot. The Murmillons were armed with a gladius (40-50 cm in length) and a large rectangular shield, like legionnaires. They were fielded in battles against the Thracians, Retiarii, and sometimes also against the Hoplomachus.
11. Pegnary. They used a whip, a club and a shield, which was attached to the left hand with straps.
12. Provocateur (“applicant”). Their uniforms could be different, depending on the nature of the games. They were depicted wearing a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a manika on the right hand, and a helmet with a visor, without brim or crest, but with feathers on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was at first rectangular, then often rounded. The provocateurs were armed with a gladius and a large rectangular shield. They were exhibited in battles with the Samnites or other provocateurs.
13. Retiarius (“fighter with a net”). Appeared at the dawn of the Empire. They were armed with a trident, a dagger and a net. In addition to a loincloth supported by a wide belt (balteus) and large armor on the left shoulder joint, the retiarius did not have any clothing, including a helmet. Sometimes a metal shield (galerus) was used to protect the neck and lower part of the face. There were retiarii who played female roles in the arena (“retiarius tunicatus”), who differed from ordinary retiarii in that they were dressed in a tunic. The Retiarius usually fought the Secutors, but sometimes also the Myrmillons.
14. Rudiary. Gladiators who have earned their release (rewarded with a wooden sword called a rudis) but choose to remain gladiators. Not all rudiarii continued to fight in the arena; there was a special hierarchy among them: they could be trainers, assistants, judges, fighters, etc. Rudiarii fighters were very popular among the public, since they had vast experience and could be expected from them real show.
15. Sagittarium( from lat. sagitta - "arrow") . Horse archers armed with a flexible bow that can fire an arrow over a long distance.
16. Samnite. Samnites, ancient type heavily armed fighters, which disappeared in the early imperial period, its name indicated the origin of gladiatorial combat. The historical Samnites were a powerful alliance of Italic tribes living in the Campania region south of Rome, against whom the Romans waged war from 326 to 291 BC. e. The Samnites' equipment included a large rectangular shield (scutum), a feathered helmet, a short sword, and possibly a greave on the left leg.
17. Secutor( O t lat. sequi - "to pursue") . This type of fighter was specifically designed for fights with retiarii. The secutors were a type of myrmillon and were equipped with similar armor and weapons, including a large rectangular shield and gladius. Their helmet, however, covered the entire face except for two eye holes, in order to protect the face from the sharp trident of their opponent. The helmet was almost round and smooth so that the retiarius' net could not catch on it.
18. Scissor (“one who cuts”). Nothing is known about this type of gladiator other than its name.
19. Tertiary (also called "Suppositicius" - "substituting"). Some competitions involved three gladiators. First, the first two fought with each other, then the winner of this fight fought with the third, who was called the tertiary. Tertiaries also came in as replacements if the gladiator announced for the fight for one reason or another could not enter the arena.
20. Thracian( lat. thraex - representative of the people of Thrace) . The Thracians were equipped with the same armor as the hoplomachus. They had a large helmet that covered the entire head and was decorated with a stylized griffin on the forehead or on the front of the crest (the griffin was a symbol of the goddess of retribution Nemesis), a small round or flattened shield (parmula), and two large greaves. Their weapon was a Thracian curved sword (sicca, about 34 cm long). They usually fought the Myrmillons or Hoplomachus.
21. Velit( pl. velites, from Lat. velum - “canvas”, because dressed in a linen tunic) . Foot gladiators armed with a javelin with a cord attached to it for throwing. Named after units of the early Republican army.
22. Venator. They specialized in demonstration hunts for animals, without fighting them in close combat, like bestiaries. The Venators also performed tricks with animals: they put their hand in the mouth of a lion; rode a camel, holding lions on a leash nearby; forced an elephant to walk on a tightrope). Strictly speaking, the Venators were not gladiators, but their performances were part of gladiator battles.
23. Pregenarius. They performed at the beginning of the competition to “warm up” the crowd. They used wooden swords (rudis) and wrapped cloth around the body. Their fights took place to the accompaniment of cymbals, trumpets and water organs (hydraulis).

For centuries, stories about gladiatorial battles have aroused people's admiration. And it is not surprising, because these fearless wars fought for the right to live. For the most colorful presentation, the mighty warriors were divided into types and each of them was used in various battles and was armed in its own way.

Bestiaries They never fought with gladiators of other classes, they fought with exotic animals. Various dangerous animals were brought especially for fighting. Bestiaries were divided into two types. "Damnatio ad bestias" - handed over to the beasts. These included lower-class citizens scheduled for execution. And this fight was more like a simple baiting by animals. The second type was called "venatio", which translates as hunter. The hunters were armed with a club, a spear or darts, and entered the arena with an almost naked body without any armor. Hunters also trained aggressive animals and often showed real performances to the audience, putting their hands and heads into the predator’s mouth.

They were distinguished by cold-bloodedness and courage in any hopeless situation. They entered the arena armed only with light spears against opponents with heavy weapons. With the help of a surprise attack and masterly defense, the velites showed the most colorful and bright victories, gaining fame as cold-blooded fighters capable of the most effective actions during brutal battles in the arena.

Powerful and brave, they had the reputation of being the elite of the gladiator world. These formidable wars cut a person in half with one blow. They were distinguished by great pressure and endurance; often a seriously wounded hoplomakh, the winner, did not leave the battlefield for a long time, listening to the enthusiastic cries of the spectators. Powerful hoplomachus could fearlessly fight alone against several opponents. Hoplomachus came out armed with swords - gladiuses or heavy two-pronged axes, and used massive shields for protection. A large helmet decorated with horns or feathers was worn on the head.

belonged to the equestrian type of gladiators, they began the fight on horses and with long spears 2 - 2.5 meters, but they always ended the battle on foot with the help of swords. In the arena, they wore a wide-brimmed helmet, as well as a medium-sized round shield made of leather. This species was considered lightly armed, since the weight of the uniform was no more than 12 kg. Equites always fought only with Equites and were not fielded against gladiators of other types.

fought in the arena without armor and wearing a spectacular mask on their face. Possessing great agility and speed, they inflicted many cutting and stabbing wounds, exhausting their opponents with their inaccessibility. Armed with two thin and light swords, the Dimachers easily fought opponents with heavy weapons. There were cases when some Dimachers released by the emperor subsequently became excellent actors.

The main distinguishing ability Legniarii there was the ability, honed to perfection, to concentrate all his strength in one key blow. These skilled fighters rarely participated in fights to the death, but performed on the lists to show off an amazing spectacle. The main weapon was a staff or a whip, but sometimes they were armed with a long whip for a mortal duel with terrible animals. With one strong and clear blow of this whip, the legniary easily broke the spine of a huge beast or his opponent.

They were armed with shields and gladius swords and always acted in pairs, against particularly strong opponents. They wore distinctive helmets on their heads, decorated with delightful crests with bright stripes. The ridges helped the fighters not to lose sight of each other in order to cover their comrade in time. Often, in the event of the death of his partner, the other fighter committed suicide without leaving the arena. Such fidelity was considered a confirmation of strong male friendship.

Retiarii are the oldest type of gladiator. Thanks to their great combat effectiveness, these trained warriors successfully resisted the heavily armed secutors and Thracians. At first, the retiarii went into battle equipped with a dagger, trident and net, later they were allowed to wear an impressive helmet and neck guards. But it was the net and the trident that remained the constant feature of these brave warriors. A net thrown by an experienced hand for some time entangled the opponent in heavy weapons, who, trying to disentangle himself, became an easy target for a huge trident.

armed with a huge shield and sword, dressed in heavy armor and a round-shaped helmet covering the face with two small slits for the eyes. Typically, gladiators of this type were fielded against retiarii. At the beginning of the battle, the retiarius retreated to a safe distance, and the secutor pursued him, trying not to get caught in the net or hit by the trident. Wearing heavy armor and weapons, these brave warriors quickly grew tired.

Thracians Thanks to their courage and boundless courage, they became a legend of gladiatorial battles. They went out to fight wearing a heavy helmet with sharpened horns, a sharp Thracian sword and a strong bronze shield. Such uniforms turned the fighter into a dangerous weapon against mounted and foot enemies. If they lost their sword, the Thracians immediately took off their helmet and used it as a weapon during close combat. Many eminent Thracians received the privilege of wearing a colorful staff during the appearance of all the gladiators before the start of the battles.

Sagittarius were mounted gladiators who were skilled with the bow. Swift sagittarii usually came out at the end of mass battles, killed the surviving fighters, and at the same time managed to fight against each other to the death. There were situations when these reckless brave men shot at the emperor’s box, in anticipation of killing the ruler who took away their freedom. The attempts always ended in failure, but the memories of these exceptional feats gave the gladiators hope and one day resulted in the famous rebellion of Spartacus.

were the most dangerous single gladiators of Rome, with their special sharpened shields and gladiuses, they inflicted cutting wounds on their opponents. Perfect mastery of any bladed weapon, as well as good physical training, allowed warriors to strike their opponents in any position. The Sixsors also fought with mounted gladiators, they hit the horse and killed the riders with gladius, who were knocked down by their own horse.

They went out to fight only against provocateurs. They could themselves challenge an opponent to a fight in order to strengthen their position by defeating a more popular opponent, or to resolve conflicts between two gladiator schools that competed with each other. The provocateurs armed themselves in the clothes of Roman legionnaires, wearing a rectangular shield, cuirass and helmet.

Samnites like the retiarii, they were an early type of gladiator. These were prisoners of war from the Samnium region. Roman soldiers, having defeated the Samnites, forced them to participate in amusing battles, which later turned into gladiatorial battles. The Samnites wore military uniforms and fought with the assistance of a sword and a rectangular shield. Their enemies were captured soldiers from the territories defeated by Rome. Later, when Samnium became a province of the Roman Empire, the Samnites were no longer classified as a separate species and were joined with the Hoplomachus and Murmillons, who fought with similar weapons.

they almost didn’t put on armor and went out to fight with their torso exposed and without using a helmet, so that it could be seen that a woman was fighting. They were armed with light swords and small shields. Fights involving female gladiators were rare, and were accepted by the public as a novelty. Women competed with each other and, in rare cases, with dwarfs, which shocked the crowd. Women's gladiator fights were always accompanied by scandals and were soon banned.

Navmachiari were considered the gladiatorial elite and took part in naval battles. Due to the fact that not all arenas could be filled with water, such performances were very rare. The naumachiari came out armed with heavy spears, short swords and grappling hooks. In water battles, various historical battles were usually reconstructed, but the outcome of the battle did not always correspond to reality.

Rudiaria there were the most experienced warriors who earned freedom for their merits, but decided to remain in the gladiator craft. They received a wooden sword as a symbol of freedom. Rudiarii could become trainers, judges, or remain fighters. The public adored them, so every appearance of the rudiary promised a real show.

Pregenaries came out before the start of the competition to warm up the crowd. They fought with wooden swords without any armor.

Tertiaries– were put up to replace a previously announced gladiator, in cases where he could not come out. Also, sometimes there were three gladiators in the arena. The first two fought against each other, and the third fought the winner.

All these fearless wars certainly deserved respect and the legends about them will not die for a long time.

On one wall in Pompeii you can read the words: “Caeladus the Thracian, the hero of girls who makes hearts beat.” These words, which have come down to us through the centuries, are silent witnesses to the charm that still captivates our imagination. The afternoon sun illuminates the amphitheater arena where the Thracian Celadus and other gladiators are fighting. They do not fight against formidable legionaries or barbarian hordes. They kill each other for the public's pleasure.

In the beginning, gladiators were prisoners of war and those sentenced to death. The laws of Ancient Rome allowed them to participate in gladiatorial fights. In case of victory (with the money received) one could buy back one’s life. But not all gladiators were slaves or criminals. Among them there were also volunteers who wanted to risk their lives for the sake of thrills or fame. Their names were written on the walls, respectable citizens talked about them. For almost 600 years, the arena was one of the most popular entertainments in the Roman world. Almost no one spoke out against this spectacle. Everyone, from Caesar to the last plebeian, wanted to see bloodshed.

It is a common thought that gladiator matches were inspired by Etruscan funeral rituals. However, it is known that at the funeral of Brutus Pera in 264 BC. Three gladiator fights took place. This incident was recorded by the Greek-Syrian historian Nicholas of Damascus, who lived during the period of Emperor Augustus. Over the next hundred years, the custom of fighting between slaves at funerals spread. In 174 BC. Titus Flaminin held munera - three-day battles, during which 74 gladiators fought.

They tried to celebrate Munera in December, simultaneously with Saturnalia. As you know, Saturn was the deity “responsible” for self-sacrifice. At the same time, the Mooners were not just a number in the funeral program. Fighting with animals – venation – was also practiced. Various wild animals brought from all over the empire were killed by specially trained fighters - the Venators. Venation served as a symbol of the subjugation of wild animals by Roman authority. Fights involving lions, tigers and other dangerous predators showed that the power of Rome covered not only people, but also animals. Any culture that was not part of Rome was declared barbaric, whose only purpose was to wait until Rome conquered it.

As more and more wealthy people became convinced that gladiatorial combats served in a great way to perpetuate the memory of the deceased, they more and more often included in their wills a requirement to conduct such a fight at their wake. Soon the public became tired of the simple battle of several pairs of gladiators. To impress people, it was necessary to stage grandiose spectacles in terms of the number of fighters or the method of combat. Gradually, munera became more spectacular and expensive. The fighters began to be equipped with armor, and the style of the armor often copied the style of one of the peoples conquered by Rome. Thus, the munera became a demonstration of the power of Rome.

Over time, munera became such a custom that a person who did not make a will to arrange a battle after his death risked discrediting his name after death as a miser. Many held games in honor of their deceased ancestors. The public was expecting another battle after the death of one of the wealthy citizens. Suetonius described the case that in Pollentia (modern Pollenzo, near Turin) the public did not allow one former centurion to be buried until the heirs organized a battle. Moreover, this was not a simple disorder in the city, but a real rebellion that forced Tiberius to send troops into the city. One deceased man ordered a fight between his former homosexual lovers in his will. Since all the lovers were young boys, it was decided to revoke this clause of the will. Munera eventually evolved into true gladiatorial combats, usually held in specially built arenas. The first arenas were built in the form of amphitheaters around the Forum Romanum. The stands were wooden, and the arena itself was covered with sand. Sand in Latin is garena, hence the name of the entire structure.

The amphitheater built by Josephus, known as the Colosseum, was the first stone structure of its kind. The floor of the arena was initially sandy, but then it was rebuilt, organizing a network of underground passages under it - hypogea. Various mechanical devices were located in the passages, facilitating the quick change of scenery in the arena. With the help of these moves, animals and gladiators were also released onto the stage.

Upon entering the amphitheater, spectators could purchase various souvenirs. Bone or clay tesserae served as entrance tickets. Tesserae were distributed free of charge several weeks before the start of the fighting. The audience was seated by special servants - lokarii.

There were seated stands for wealthy citizens. There were standing stands for the plebs. The Colosseum also had a gallery where the poorest spectators gathered. It was a matter of honor to take a place appropriate to one's status.

The tunnels leading to the stands were inhabited by various “entrepreneurs” from food traders to prostitutes. As the program progressed, the audience's excitement grew. Classic writers describe the roar of the excited crowd as the "roar of a storm." Among the spectators in the stands there were also merchants offering food, flags and lists of gladiators. Bets were made on these lists. Ovid says that asking a neighbor to read a program was considered a plausible excuse for meeting a girl. However, under Augustus, separate places were allocated for women. The front rows were occupied by senators, soldiers, married men, and students and teachers. The women were seated in the upper rows.

The shape of the amphitheater reflected heat inward and sound outward. Any sound made by the gladiator was clearly heard in the stands, even in the very top rows. Hence the rule arose that gladiators should not make unnecessary screams and remain silent even if wounded. Even in the worst seats, the spectators had a clear view of the arena.

By the end of the 2nd century BC. the battles, which lasted for several days in a row with the participation of hundreds of gladiators, no longer surprised anyone. There were also people for whom keeping and training gladiators became a profession. They were called lanistas. Often they were former gladiators themselves. The social status of the Lanists was low; they were despised for making money from the deaths of other people, while remaining completely safe themselves. If gladiators were compared to prostitutes, then lanistas can be compared to pimps. To give themselves a bit of respectability, the lanistas called themselves “negotiator familie gladiatore,” which in modern language can be translated as “commercial director of a gladiator troupe.” The essence of their activity was that they found physically strong slaves at slave markets, preferably prisoners of war and even criminals, bought them, taught them all the wisdom necessary to perform in the arena, and then rented them out to everyone who wanted to organize gladiator fights.

When entering the ring, gladiators had to proclaim: Ave Ceasar, morituri te salutant! - Those going to death greet you, Caesar! According to tradition, before the start of the fight, the gladiator fighters were divided into pairs and began the first demonstration fight - prolusio, its participants did not fight for real, their weapons were wooden, the movements were more reminiscent of a dance than a fight, accompanied by the accompaniment of a lute or flute. At the end of the “lyrical introduction” the bugle sounded and announced that the first real battle was about to begin. Gladiators who changed their minds about fighting were beaten and sometimes even killed with whips.

Junior gladiators entered into battle in pairs determined by lot. The gladiators' weapons were demonstrated to the public to convince everyone that they were military weapons. The identified couples dispersed around the arena to the sound of trumpets and the battle began. In addition to the fighters, there were doctors in the arena who gave commands to the fighters, directing the course of the battles. In addition, slaves stood ready with whips and sticks, called upon to “encourage” those of the gladiators who for some reason refused to fight at full strength. After the fight between inexperienced gladiators, the best fighters entered the arena.

If any of the gladiators received a serious wound and could not continue the fight, he raised his hand to show surrender. From that moment on, his fate depended on the opinions of the audience. The vanquished could be spared as a worthy fighter, or they could be doomed to death as a coward and incompetent. Until recently, it was believed that spectators expressed their attitude towards the vanquished with the help of thumb. If the finger is pointing up, spare, if down, finish off. Recent studies have shown that the opposite was true. A finger raised up meant “put it on the blade,” and a finger down meant “weapon into the ground.” Considering the fact that the first to act were not very skilled gladiators, the fate of the vanquished was predetermined. The corpses of gladiators were removed from the arena using wheeled carts. The slaves removed the armor from the dead. These slaves had their own small unofficial “business.” They collected the blood of killed gladiators and sold it to epileptics, like the best remedy from their illness. After the fight between inexperienced gladiators, the best fighters entered the arena.

In spectacular battles, when people fought with animals, the fight was considered over only if one of the opponents was killed: a man by a beast or a beast by a man.

Gladiators were at the very bottom of the social ladder, and after the uprising of Spartacus, the attitude towards gladiators became especially wary. Soldiers and guards watched over the gladiators, preventing attempts at disobedience or suicide. Prisoners of war sent to gladiatorial school wore slave collars and shackles that restricted movement. Volunteers, unlike slaves, did not wear chains. Free people, unlike slaves, did not pose a threat to society. Freed slaves were closer in status to free citizens. Petronius Arbiter, in his Satyricon, extols the virtues of the traveling party of gladiators, saying: “The three-day show is the best I have ever seen. These were not simple grunts, but mostly free people.”

Sometimes the scions of noble families also entered the arena. Petronius Arbiter mentions a woman from a senatorial family who became a female gladiator. Lucian of Samosata, who hated gladiatorial combat, talks about Sisinnius, a man who decided to join the gladiators in order to win 10,000 drachmas and pay a ransom for his friend.

Some people became gladiators out of a desire for thrills. Even emperors fell for this bait. Emperor Commodus (180-192 AD) was a fan of gladiatorial combat since childhood. This gave the opportunity to the political opponents of his father, Marcus Aurelius, to say that the emperor’s wife gave birth to a young heir from the gladiator. One way or another, Commodus spent almost all his time with the gladiators. As an adult, he began to participate in battles as a secutor. By the time of his death, Commodus had managed to win more than 700 fights, but Commodus’s contemporary Victor notes that the emperor’s opponents were armed with lead weapons.

The bulk of professional arena fighters came from gladiatorial schools. During the reign of Octavian Augustus (about 10 BC), there were 4 imperial schools in Rome: the Great, the Morning, where they trained bestiaries - gladiators who fought with wild animals, the school of the Gauls and the school of the Dacians. While studying at the school, all gladiators were fed well and treated professionally. An example of this is the fact that the famous ancient Roman physician Galen worked for a long time at the Great Imperial School.

The gladiators slept in pairs in small closets with an area of ​​4-6 sq.m. The training, which lasted from morning until evening, was very intense. Under the guidance of a teacher, a former gladiator, the newcomers learned fencing. Each of them was given a wooden sword and a shield woven from willow. The chaotic ringing of metal brought melancholy to the spectators, so instructors taught gladiators to fight not only spectacularly, but also effectively. In the Roman army, it was customary for new recruits to train on wooden poles 1.7 m high. In gladiatorial schools, they preferred to use stuffed straws, which gave a more visual idea of ​​the enemy. To strengthen the muscles, the next iron training weapon after the wooden one was specially made 2 times heavier than a combat weapon.

When a beginner has adequately grasped the basics martial art, depending on his abilities and physical training, he was distributed into specialized groups of one type or another of gladiators. The least capable students ended up in andabats. They were armed with only two daggers, without any additional protection, and completed this equipment with a helmet with two holes that did not coincide with the eyes at all. Therefore, the Andabats were forced to fight each other almost blindly, waving their weapons at random. The servants “helped” them by pushing them from behind with hot iron rods. The public always had a lot of fun looking at the unfortunate people, and this part of the gladiatorial fights was considered the most fun by the Romans.

Gladiators, like Roman soldiers, had their own charter; some historians call it a code of honor, but in fact this is a conventional name. because Initially, a gladiator, by definition, was not a free person, and Roman slaves had no concept of honor as such. When a person entered a gladiator school, especially if he was previously free, in order to be legally considered a gladiator, he needed to perform a number of actions, many of them, of course, purely formal. Gladiators swore and took an oath similar to a military oath, according to which they were to be considered “formally dead” and transferred their lives to the property of the gladiator school in which they lived, studied, trained and died.

There were a number of unspoken rules and conventions that every gladiator had to adhere to and not violate them under any circumstances. The gladiator always had to remain silent during the fight - the only way he could contact the public was through gestures. The second unspoken point was the observance of certain “rules” of dignity, which can be compared with the rules of the samurai. A gladiator fighter had no right to cowardice and fear of death. If a fighter felt that he was dying, he had to open his face to the enemy so that he could finish him off, looking into his eyes, or cut his own throat, taking off his helmet and opening his face and eyes to the audience, and they had to see what was in them there is not a drop of fear. The third law was that the gladiator could not choose his own opponent; apparently, this was done so that the fighters in the arena did not settle their personal scores and grievances. Entering the arena, the gladiator did not know until the very end who he would have to fight with.

It was fashionable among Roman aristocrats to have their own personal gladiators, who not only earned the owner money by performing, but also served as personal guards, which was extremely relevant during the civil unrest of the late Republic. In this regard, Julius Caesar outdid everyone, who at one time maintained up to 2 thousand gladiator-bodyguards, who made up a real army. It must be said that gladiators became not only under the coercion of a slave owner or by a court sentence to the arena, but also absolutely voluntarily, in the pursuit of fame and wealth.

Despite all the dangers of this profession, a simple but strong guy from the Roman social bottom really had a chance to get rich. And although the chances of dying on the blood-soaked sand of the arena were much greater, many took the risk. The most successful of them, in addition to the love of the Roman mob, and sometimes even Roman matrons, received substantial cash prizes from fans and fight organizers, as well as interest on bets. In addition, Roman spectators often threw money, jewelry and other expensive trinkets into the arena for their favorite winner, which also accounted for a significant share of the income. Emperor Nero, for example, once gave the gladiator Spiculus a whole palace. And many of the famous fighters gave fencing lessons to everyone, receiving a very decent fee for this.

However, luck smiled on very few in the arena - the public wanted to see blood and death, so the gladiators had to fight seriously, driving the crowd into a frenzy.

Animal catchers worked tirelessly, devastating the Roman provinces in Africa and Asia, as well as adjacent territories. Thousands of professionals were engaged in this extremely dangerous, but equally profitable business. In addition to the fighting people, hundreds and thousands of lions, tigers, wolves, leopards, bears, panthers, wild boars, wild bulls, bison, elephants, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, antelopes, deer, giraffes, and monkeys died in the arenas. One day, the catchers even managed to bring polar bears to Rome! Apparently, there were simply no impossible tasks for them.

All these animals were victims of bestiarian gladiators. Their training was much longer than that of classical gladiators. Students of the famous Morning School, which received its name because animal persecution took place in the morning, were taught not only how to use weapons, but also training, and were also introduced to the characteristics and habits of different animals.

Ancient Roman trainers reached unprecedented heights in their art: bears walked on a tightrope, and lions placed a bestiary under the feet of a hunted but still living hare, monkeys rode the fierce Hyrcanian hounds, and harnessed deer to chariots. These amazing tricks were countless. But when the satiated crowd demanded blood, fearless venators appeared in the arena (from the Latin wenator - hunter), who knew how to kill animals not only various types weapons, but also with bare hands. They considered it the highest chic to throw a cloak over the head of a lion or leopard, wrap it up, and then kill the animal with one blow of a sword or spear.

Gladiator fights passed differently. There were fights between single pairs, and sometimes several dozen, or even hundreds of pairs fought simultaneously. Sometimes entire performances, introduced into the practice of mass entertainment by Julius Caesar, were played out in the arena. So, in a matter of minutes, grandiose decorations were erected, depicting the walls of Carthage, and gladiators, dressed and armed like legionnaires and Carthaginians, represented the assault on the city. Or a whole forest of freshly cut trees grew in the arena, and the gladiators depicted an ambush of the Germans attacking the same legionnaires. The imagination of the directors of ancient Roman shows knew no bounds.

And although it was extremely difficult to surprise the Romans with anything, Emperor Claudius, who ruled in the middle of the 1st century, completely succeeded. The naumachia (staged naval battle) carried out on his orders was of such a scale that it turned out to be capable of capturing the imagination of all residents of the Eternal City, young and old. Although naumachia were arranged quite rarely, since they were very expensive even for emperors and required careful development.

He held his first naumachia in 46 BC. Julius Caesar. Then, on the Campus Martius of Rome, a huge artificial lake was dug for a naval battle. 16 galleys with 4 thousand oarsmen and 2 thousand gladiator soldiers took part in this performance. It seemed that it was no longer possible to organize a larger-scale spectacle, but in 2 BC. The first Roman emperor Octavian Augustus, after a year of preparation, presented the Romans with a naumachia with the participation of 24 ships and 3 thousand soldiers, not counting the oarsmen who played out the battle between the Greeks and Persians at Salamis.

Only the above-mentioned Emperor Claudius managed to break this record. Lake Fucinskoe, located 80 kilometers from Rome, was chosen to carry out the naumachia he had planned. No other nearby body of water simply could accommodate 50 real combat triremes and biremes, the crews of which included 20 thousand criminals sentenced to the arena. To do this, Claudius emptied all the city prisons, putting everyone who could bear arms on ships.

And in order to discourage so many criminals gathered in one place from organizing a rebellion, the lake was surrounded by troops. The naval battle took place in that part of the lake where the hills formed a natural amphitheater. There was no shortage of spectators: about 500 thousand people - almost the entire adult population of Rome - were located on the slopes.

The ships, divided into two fleets, depicted the confrontation between the Rhodians and the Sicilians. The battle, which began around 10 am, ended only at four o’clock in the afternoon, when the last “Sicilian” ship surrendered. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote: “The fighting spirit of the fighting criminals was not inferior to the fighting spirit of real warriors.” The waters of the lake were red with blood, not to mention the wounded, only more than 3 thousand people were killed. After the battle, Claudius pardoned all survivors, with the exception of several crews who, in his opinion, avoided the battle. The audience was absolutely delighted with what they saw. None of the subsequent emperors managed to “outplay” Claudius. It is no coincidence that his death was mourned by literally the entire city, because he, like no one else, perhaps with the exception of Nero, knew how to entertain the public. And even though during his reign Claudius showed himself to be far from a brilliant statesman, this did not prevent him from being perhaps the most revered emperor among the people.

It happened that the fight dragged on, and both wounded gladiators could not defeat each other for a long time. Then the spectators could stop the fight themselves and demand that the editor - the organizer of the games - release both fighters from the arena. And the editor obeyed the “voice of the people.” The same thing happened if the gladiator pleased the public so much with his skill and courage that they demanded the immediate presentation of a wooden training sword - rudis - as a symbol of complete liberation not only from fights in the arena, but also from slavery. Of course, this only concerned prisoners of war and slaves, but not volunteers.

The name of the gladiator Flamma has survived to this day, during whose career admiring spectators four times demanded that he be given a wooden sword, and he refused all four times! It is possible that Flamma showed such unprecedented stubbornness in the pursuit of fame and money. One way or another, he succeeded, he left the arena voluntarily, more or less unharmed, and in fairly mature age and being the owner of a decent fortune.

Gladiatorial fights were not alien to the most educated people of that time. Cicero, for example, assessed these games this way: “It is useful for people to see that slaves can fight courageously. If even a simple slave can show courage, then what should the Romans be like? In addition, games accustom warlike people to the form of killing and prepare them for war.” Pliny, Tacitus and many other prominent Roman writers and thinkers were ardent fans of gladiatorial shows. The only exception was, perhaps, the philosopher Seneca, who strongly advocated for their prohibition, which not least led to his forced suicide on the orders of his crowned pupil Nero.

Almost all Roman emperors sought to outdo each other in the grandeur of their games in order to win the love of the crowd. Emperor Titus Flavius, at the opening of the Colosseum, which accommodated up to 80 thousand spectators and immediately became the main arena of Ancient Rome, ordered to kill in different ways 17 thousand Jews who worked on its construction for ten years. Emperor Domitian, being a virtuoso in archery, loved to amuse spectators by hitting the head of a lion or bear with arrows so that the arrows seemed to become horns for them. And he killed naturally horned animals - deer, bulls, bison, and so on - with a shot in the eye. It must be said that the Roman people loved this ruler very much.

There were also merry fellows among the Roman emperors. For example, there is a very funny story connected with the name Gallienus. One jeweler, who sold false precious stones and was sentenced to the arena for this, was driven out by the bestiaries to the middle of the arena and placed in front of a closed lion cage. The unfortunate man waited with bated breath for an inevitable and, moreover, terrible death, and then the cage door swung open and out came... a chicken. The jeweler, unable to withstand the stress, fainted. When the audience had laughed enough, Gallienus ordered the announcement: “This man deceived, therefore he was deceived.” Then the jeweler was brought to his senses and released on all four sides.

By the beginning of the 4th century, gladiatorial fights and animal persecution began to gradually decline. This was the time when the once Great Roman Empire began to literally languish under the blows of numerous “barbarian” tribes. The situation was aggravated by the ongoing economic crisis - the Romans themselves practically did not work, and imported goods were constantly becoming more expensive. Therefore, the Roman emperors of that period had enough worries besides arranging expensive games. And, nevertheless, they continued, although without the same scope. Gladiator fights were finally banned 72 years before the fall of the Roman Empire.

Samnite: Samnites, an ancient type of heavily armed fighters The historical Samnites were an influential alliance of Italic tribes living in the Campania region south of Rome. The equipment of the Samnites was a large rectangular shield (scutum), a helmet decorated with feathers, a short sword, a sword and a greave on the left leg.

Skissor (scissor, “one who cuts”, “cutting”) - a gladiator who was armed with a short sword (gladius) and instead of a shield had a cutting weapon, two small swords that had one handle) or, in another scenario, wore left hand an iron hollow rod with a hook and chain, or a sharp horizontal point. With this cutting weapon, the scissor delivered blows that resulted in minor wounds to the opponent, but the wounds bled a lot (several arteries were cut, which naturally caused fountains of blood). The rest of the scissor was similar to a secutor, except for the additional protection of the right arm (from shoulder to elbow), which consisted of many iron plates fastened together with strong leather laces. As many resources claim, absolutely nothing is known about the Scissors, however, this is not the case and today we can confidently imagine what this gladiator looked like, and he looked truly terrifying.

(Scissor carvers):They were armed with two large swords.

Peltasts - lightly armed gladiators (a type of velite) , were often used as skirmishers who threw darts. The peltasts' armament consisted of several darts, often with "throwing belts" that made it possible to increase the leverage when throwing. As the main means of defense, the peltasts used a crescent-shaped wicker shield called a pelta.

Thracian peltast Spartan peltast

Provocateur (“applicant”). Their uniforms could be different, depending on the nature of the games. They were depicted wearing a loincloth, big beltwith iron buckle , a long greave on the left leg, a manika on the right hand, andsmooth-topped helmet with visor,rounded cutouts for the eyes, covered with mesh and with feathers on each side.They were in fierce battles , protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was at first rectangular, then often rounded. The weapons of the provocateurs were a gladius and a large rectangular , sometimes rounded shield.

Andabat (from the Greek word “andibatus” - “located on an eminence” They were so named because they fought on horseback. They were dressed in chain mail, like the eastern cavalry, and helmets with visors, or a helmet with a metal mask, sometimes an aventail, covering the face. Cataphracts wore a plate or scaly armor. Parthian cataphracts of the 2nd century AD used a combined scale-plate armor, in which the chest was covered with large rectangular vertical plates instead of scales.

Bestiary and Venator (Beast Fighters) Armed with a spear or knife, these gladiators went out to fight dangerous animals. Later, Bestiaries received special training for battle against specific types of beasts.They specialized in demonstration hunts for animals, without fighting them in close combat, like bestiaries. The Venators also performed tricks with animals: they put their hand in the mouth of a lion; rode a camel, holding lions on a leash nearby; forced an elephant to walk on a tightrope).

Laquerii (Lakvearium) ("lasso fighter"): Laquearii may have been a type of retiarii that tried to catch their opponents with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net. Weapons: lasso (lasso) and short knife. Laquearia clothing consists of light armor on the chest, light boots and light hand guards, a wide leather belt with metal plates that protects the stomach. The shoulder pad covers the left shoulder, the arm up to the elbow and rises high enough above the shoulder so that one could cover the head from a blow by moving the shoulder.

And of course, we all know and love: secutor, dimacherus, murmilion, Thracian, hoplomachus, velite, equitus, sagittarium and essedarius.

Dimacher is, as you know, two swords, he is good in attack, weak in defense, with two swords it is very difficult to block blows, without a shield, he is very weak against strong blows, even if he blocks the blows, he quickly falls. Dimacher should definitely be placed on the attack, not 1% should be left, no distance, only a maximum attack! He must very quickly crush the enemy with his attack, not allow the enemy to breathe, and in a successful scenario he will win, well, at least he will have there's more chance of that.

Hoplomachus - He has a large shield, has a unique pose, he knows how to sit down and in this position it is very difficult to get him, while he is sitting and it is impossible to get him. But Hoplomakh will only sit when he is on defense; the higher the percentage of defense, the more often he sits. Next, he should rarely open (that is, get up from behind the shield and hit the enemy), but forcefully!

Retiarius (lat. retiarius - fighter with a net) is one of the types of gladiators.

The armament of this gladiator was a net with which he was supposed to entangle the enemy, and a trident. The retiarius fought almost naked in a wide belt and pauldron, which covered the shoulder and left side breasts The retarius is the strongest type in the game of gladiators, and is quite dangerous for the opponent, because when he throws the net and hits it, after several hits on the opponent, he gains an advantage. However, he also has disadvantages, he does not have a shield, and this makes it difficult to defend against blows, and it is difficult for him to block them. The task of the retiarius was to throw a net so as to entangle the enemy from head to toe, and then finish him off with a trident or dagger. The retiarius had neither a helmet nor a shield - he had to rely only on his own dexterity. The fastest and most coordinated newcomers were taken into this group.

The secutor is the main enemy of the retiarius, so named because of its ability to prevent the retiarius from running away to a safe distance. Armed with a sword and a small shield. The smooth rounded helmet does not cling to the net and allows the pruner to slip out even if the net covers it. Secutor is also good against other types of gladiators who like to attack from afar.

Velite comes from the branch of the same name in the Roman army. Armed with three throwing darts, a small shield and a sword. He is dangerous at a distance, but weakly protected up close, so he usually tries to keep his distance if he still has darts in stock.

Murmilon - comes from one of the three very first types of gladiators, who was called a Gaul (as a representative of captives from Gaul) and in ancient times fought with a Samnite and a Thracian. On the helmets of the Gauls, or Murmillons (from the Latin “murma” - fish), a fish was depicted , and their weapons corresponded to the Gallic ones. Often the opponents of the Murmillons were the retiarii, who during the fight sang a song invented in ancient times: “I’m not catching you, I’m catching fish. Why are you running away from me, Gaul? . He fights barefoot, armed with a large Gallic shield and sword, and his helmet is decorated with a figurine of a fish.

Thracian - descends from one of the three very first types of gladiators, who was even then called a Thracian (as a representative of captives from Thrace) and in ancient times fought with a Gaul and a Samnite. However, now the Greeks often play the role of the Thracians. The Frankians were armed with a small round shield, a small curved sword, greaves on both legs, an iron armlet on the right arm, and a helmet with a visor with many holes that covered the entire face.

Sagittarius: Sagittarius (from Latin sagitta - "arrow") Originally horse archers, armed with a flexible bow capable of launching an arrow over a long distance.

Essedarii were gladiators who fought on war chariots. They were armed with lassos, slings, bows and clubs. The first essedarii were captive Britons whom Julius Caesar brought from his not very successful British campaign.

Praegenarii - technically They were not gladiators, although they sometimes took part in gladiator battles, but did not fight to the death. They opened the show with musical numbers and clowning. Their goal was to entertain the crowd so as not to kill each other. Praegenarii used a wooden sword, rudis. But they also used other weapons used by real gladiators, such as the lasso, gladius, saber, trident and net.The body armor and helmet worn by this type of gladiator were the same as those of the other types of gladiators they parodied: the Praegenarii were clowns. They adopted the body armor and gladiator helmets, but their only purpose was to entertain the crowd. Make for a laugh and provide a good warm-up for the main show. If the emperor was not satisfied with the performance, or he did not like the manner of presenting the pregnarius, then they were put up as a laughing stock for a non-lethal battle against the gladiators.

Previously it was believed that the custom of gladiator fights came to Rome from Etruria. However, frescoes from Campania2, where the custom was of a religious and ritual nature, as well as the testimony of Titus Livy3, allow us to lean towards the version of the Campanian origin of gladiatorial games. The origin of this custom has been variously explained; there is reason to believe that in ancient times, over the coffin of a deceased noble warrior, it was customary to kill captured enemies, sacrificing them to the gods of the underworld. Subsequently, these cruel sacrifices were probably transformed into ritual battles of people armed with a sword (gladius). The first gladiators were called bustuarii (from “bustum” - the pyre on which the body of the deceased was burned),4 which shows the original connection of the gladiatorial games (munera) with funeral celebrations, in honor of which the earliest recorded Roman spectacles were organized in 264 BC. , dedicated to the funeral of Lucius Junius Brutus5. Over time, gladiatorial games began to be held on other occasions; They were also included in the program of spectacles during some holidays.

The earliest surviving amphitheater ruins date back to the reign of Sulla and were built in the colonies of veteran warriors, located mainly in Campania6. The most famous is the amphitheater built in Pompeii, colonized around 80 BC. army veterans, whose presence and traditions K. Welch attributed to the primary factor in the development of gladiatorial culture in this territory7. It is absolutely true that interest in gladiatorial fights in the provinces was supported mainly by three groups of society: legionnaires, veterans and the Romanized urban elite, as evidenced primarily by the ruins of amphitheaters, as well as finds of small plastic art with a gladiatorial theme in legionary fortresses and colonies8. The interest of legionnaires in gladiatorial games was stimulated not so much by a thirst for bloody spectacles as by practical interest. From time to time, training of legionnaires took place not on the territory of the legionary camp (campus), but in gladiatorial schools (ludus). In 50 BC. Julius Caesar planned to build a ludus gladiatorium near his legionary base in Ravenna,9 not only for the entertainment of his soldiers, but to train them there with the help of experienced instructors (doctores gladiatorum). Thus, it is clear that there was a close interaction between the gladiatorial and military cultures before all in a single method of training for sword fencing, and besides this, in the use of some similar types of defensive weapons. In this regard, it is interesting to consider one of the elements of gladiator weapons - the helmet, as the most representative example of a close relationship with army fashion. The structural similarity of some gladiator helmets with those widespread in the 1st century is noted. AD in the Roman army, infantry helmets of the Weisenau type. In addition, there is a similarity in their decor with ceremonial cavalry helmets of the same time. Unfortunately, it is not possible to conduct such a comparative analysis over several centuries. The earliest representative sources - gladiator reliefs - appear only in the era of the early Principate, and the latest mosaics depicting gladiator weapons, more or less clearly, date back to the beginning of the 4th century. AD Not all of them, however, depict helmets in as much detail as would be necessary for a comparative analysis with the real specimens at our disposal, which almost all date back to the 1st century. AD Thus, only for this century there is a sufficient volume of both iconographic and archaeological material. The absence of any pictorial sources and artifacts for the Republican period does not allow us to fully imagine what types of helmets were used by gladiators during the time of Spartacus, and forms a gap in the line of development of the gladiator helmet. However, a number of features indicate a genetic relationship between gladiator helmets with wide brims and the Boeotian helmet, which appeared in Greece back in the 5th century. BC The Boeotian helmet was widespread not only in Boeotia, but throughout Greece, as well as throughout the Hellenistic space, right up to Bactria. In addition to numerous images of it, several copies have been found. The earliest finds were made in Athens10 and Mesopotamia (on the Tigris River)11 and date back to the 4th century. BC Since the time of Alexander the Great, cheekpieces and plumes appeared on Boeotian helmets, and from the 2nd century. BC the forehead part of the crown begins to be decorated with volutes12, which will later be characteristic of gladiator helmets.

Weapons of gladiators of ancient Rome

Visual sources show a wide variety of types of helmets used by gladiators: from an infantry helmet of the Weisenau type, equipped with forehead volutes13, to completely closed ones, reminiscent of the medieval topfhelm14 (Tables I - III). Some types of gladiator helmets are presented exclusively in pictorial sources. Moreover, on completely narrowly localized groups of monuments. For example, I know of at least four images of a rather unusual helmet with a crest that runs from the back of the head to the very chin (bas-relief and relief from Hierapolis of Phrygia15, a figurine from the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge16 and a monument from Tatarevo in the museum in Sofia17). All these images come from the east of the Roman Empire, which suggests a local variety of secutor helmets18. The variety of depicted types of helmets deserves their consideration in a separate great job, where we will need to carefully consider all the images at our disposal, and show which of them really reflect real-life helmets, and which are artistic fiction and the author’s imagination. Taking all this into account, this article will mainly consider archaeological material. Archaeological finds are few and come mainly from cities on the coast of the Gulf of Naples, destroyed by one of the most terrible disasters in human history - the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in August 79 AD. e. More than 75% of the finds come from the gladiator barracks in Pompeii, where Cavalier Rocco de Alcubierre led excavations for the Spanish King Charles III in 1748. In 1764, a young Spanish engineer, Francesco La Vega, joined the excavations and was the first to make sketches of the objects found and keep a neat diary of the excavations19. Before this, the main style of excavation in Pompeii was treasure hunting. There is information that La Vega began excavating the gladiator barracks in the same 1764, and they only ended when the building was completely cleared in 1800. In 1766/7. workers cleared a room in which perfectly preserved gladiator weapons were found, preserved by volcanic ash and pumice20. To this we must add scattered finds in Herculaneum and its environs (helmets from the Louvre21 and the Berlin Antiquarium22).

Other finds not related to the Bay of Naples disaster come from the Roman borderland. A tin-plated helmet crown without decoration was found in Hawkedon (Suffolk, England)23, a lattice-shaped visor comes from Aquincum (Budapest)24, a griffin-shaped pommel was found at the site of a border fortress of German Limes25, a cheek piece was discovered in Xanten26. In addition to these finds, in museums around the world there are several more helmets identified with the weapons of gladiators. They are held in the collections of the Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome27, the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto28, the John Woodman Higgins Armory29 and the Detroit Institute of Arts30.

Typology

Most helmets have fairly wide brims, according to the shape of which M. Junkelmann divides them into two types31. The first, earlier type (type "Chieti G") has horizontal brims along the entire perimeter of the helmet. In the second type (“Pompeii G”) the fields are horizontal only on the sides and back, and in the front they are sharply raised above the forehead, forming a kind of curved visor. The latter type is a transitional variant to a later type, no longer represented among the finds in Pompeii. M. Junkelmann calls this type “Berlin G”. It has very low (at neck level) horizontal brims at the back and sides and a clear visor frame with an almost vertical brim at the front. To this are also added the types “Provocateur G” and “Secutor G”.

However, M. Junkelmann's typology relies exclusively on design features and does not take into account the design features of helmets, which in some cases were standard. All this allows us to make the typology of gladiator helmets more detailed, not only to highlight the features, but also, with the help of iconographic material, to try to associate this or that version of the helmet with a certain type of gladiator.

All archaeological finds can be divided into three types with subtypes.

Type I (Table V, 2; VII, 1 - 4). The crown resembles an army helmet of the Weisenau type and in most cases is richly ornamented with chased figures. A visor plate is riveted to the forehead part of the crown, as on infantry helmets. The lower edge of the frontal part of the crown has semicircular cutouts, which, together with the cheekpieces attached to pins, which had the same semicircular cutouts on their upper edges, formed a continuous visor with round eye cutouts, closed by round overhead lattice eyecups. The backplate is located almost at a right angle to the crown and is completely similar to the backplates of Weisenau-type helmets.

Type II (Table V, 3; X, 3). The crown is also similar to infantry helmets of the Weisenau type and is devoid of any decoration. It is also similar to the crown of helmets of the first type, but does not have semicircular arched cutouts on the lower edge of the frontal part, and, in addition, there is a low longitudinal ridge. The visor consists of two halves (cheekpieces) attached to the crown on side hinges and fastened together after putting on the helmet using a centrally located vertical plate-pin. Eye slits in the form of small, unprotected round cutouts that significantly limit vision. A clear disadvantage of this type is poor air exchange, since the visor is devoid of any other openings other than the eye slits, and this is clearly not enough. Type III (Table V, 1). The crown has wide curved brims, to which the cheekpieces are attached using hinges, and to them, in turn, lattice eyecups are attached using pins. Based on the shape of the crest, visor and decoration, helmets of this type can be divided into three subtypes.

Option A (Table VIII, 1 - 3). The crown is decorated with volutes and a mascaron on the forehead. On the sides, in the places where the volutes end, there are bushings for fastening the plume in the form of a bird's feather. The crest of the helmet ends with the image of a griffin's head. According to iconographic sources, this type of helmet is associated with the Thracian gladiator (Thrax) (bronze figurine of a Thracian from the former collection of F. von Lipperheide32 - now located in Hanover - gladiator reliefs from the tomb of Lusia Storax, National Museum, Chieti33).

Option B (Table VIII, 4; IX, 1 - 4; X, 1, 2). The crown of the helmet is richly decorated with embossed images of mythological subjects, various kinds of trophies, scenes of the captivity of barbarians, and scenes of triumphal processions. The helmet crest sometimes also has decoration. On pictorial sources, such helmets are worn by the gladiator-mirmillo (bronze figurine of a gladiator from Lillebon, Museum of Antiquity in Rouen [Pl. III]; bronze figurine from the Berlin Antiquarium34) or hoplomachus (figurine from the Berlin Antiquarium35).

Option C (Table VI; X, 4). Represented by one single copy in the Berlin Antiquarium36, but in a number of cases depicted on iconographic sources (for example, a relief from the Berlin Antiquarium37). It differs from the previous version by a large bend in the wide brim, a visor in the form of bars over the entire face, and a massive comb. It is unfortunate that there is no guaranteed provenance (the location of the find is said to be Herculaneum or the Adriatic Sea38), but comparison with objects from Pompeii and Herculaneum shows a different quality of the Berlin helmet. In contrast to the almost entirely decorated gladiator weapons in the Archaeological Museum in Naples and the Louvre, the light-dark contrast of the Berlin weapons resembles an elegant example chessboard. This effect was achieved by tinning the brass of the helmet and scraping it again until a network of rasters was obtained in every second square of the tin layer. In these places, the initially golden, and now gray-green, patina-covered surface of the tin is visible. Appearing probably in the second quarter of the 1st century. AD, helmets of this variant remained popular until the end of the existence of gladiatry. Judging by the iconographic monuments, in the western part of the Empire they were practically unchanged during this time, while in the Hellenistic East there were some modifications of such helmets (for example, with reduced brims at the front).