Start here
3. Overload principle
The principle of overload reflects the fact that in order for the effect of supercompensation to occur, the effect on the body must exceed a certain threshold level. The load will be stressful not when it is great, but when it is great enough to trigger the adaptation mechanism and cause the phenomenon of supercompensation. In training practice, this is expressed in the need to constantly increase training loads. This can be achieved by changing the parameters that determine the volume and intensity of a specific training load, and by manipulating combinations of these parameters.[…]
3. Overload principle
The principle of overload reflects the fact that in order for the effect of supercompensation to occur, the effect on the body must exceed a certain threshold level. The load will be stressful not when it is great, but when it is great enough to trigger the adaptation mechanism and cause the phenomenon of supercompensation. In training practice, this is expressed in the need to constantly increase training loads. This can be achieved by changing the parameters that determine the volume and intensity of a specific training load, and by manipulating combinations of these parameters.
However, implementing this principle in practice, we will inevitably encounter the following situation: an increase in the volume and/or intensity of the training load and the corresponding development of certain abilities or qualities, which occurs quite actively at the beginning of the training process, slows down more and more over time and in eventually disappears completely. As you become more trained, the level of tension required to trigger the adaptation mechanism approaches a point where your body simply cannot maintain it at that level. It turns out to be a kind of vicious circle, the student is included in the so-called. state of stagnation or plateau. Further attempts to increase loads by activating volitional efforts will lead to a state of overexertion, or overtraining. There is a paradox - to ensure longevity and continuity of progress, we must, observing the principle of overload, constantly strive to increase the load, but in training practice it is impossible to realize this condition. The principle of cyclicity will come to our aid, which we will begin to consider a little later.
4. The principle of specificity
The principle of specificity postulates that “the most pronounced adaptive changes under the influence of training occur in the organs and functional systems that are most stressed when performing physical activity” (4). As they say, “training is what you train.” For example, short-term training with near-maximal and extreme loads will cause those adaptive changes that correspond precisely to this nature of the load, and will differ from those that occur under the influence of long-term continuous training with moderate loads. The first of them will cause an increase in the cross-section of the muscle due to the development of mainly “fast” muscle fibers, improvement of creatine phosphokinase, myokinase systems of energy production and anaerobic glycolysis. The second will lead to the development of “slow” muscle fibers, less capable of hypertrophy, as well as improvement of aerobic energy supply mechanisms and increased capillarization.
Thus, when starting classes with a client, it is necessary to fairly accurately determine the nature of the load, the use of which should solve certain tasks set by him. This poses a problem if the client wants to maximize the development of several different qualities. The interaction of training effects from loads that differ in nature can be negative. For example, incorrectly combining loads aimed at developing strength and endurance in the training process can lead to a significant decrease in the training effect of each of them. Acceleration of mitochondrial synthesis and an increase in the level of enzymes that provide the aerobic mechanism of energy supply during endurance work is ensured by the release of the so-called. stress hormones, the main of which are glucocorticoids. However, glucocorticoids, including mobilizing the body’s protein resources, “compete” with anabolic hormones, designed to accelerate the synthesis of contractile proteins to increase strength qualities. In turn, short-term powerful workouts aimed at developing strength and using anaerobic mechanisms of ATP resynthesis “acidify” the internal environment of the body, which prevents the growth of mitochondria (“energy stations” that provide the aerobic path of energy production). In principle, it is possible to simultaneously develop various qualities, using training influences that differ from each other, but combine them in accordance with certain rules and choosing priority goals and objectives. Therefore, you, as a coach, need to familiarize your ward with this phenomenon in an accessible form and jointly decide on priorities.
5. The principle of specialization
This principle is, in fact, a subprinciple of the previous one, considering the concept of specificity in a narrower sense. The principle of specialization is based on the concept of neuromuscular adaptation, which occurs in response to the same repetitive movements. We are talking about developing the so-called. techniques for performing a specific movement and increasing performance due to this. As we know, several muscle groups and individual muscles are involved in each movement, playing their assigned role (agonists, antagonists, synergists, stabilizers) and demonstrating their strength abilities in a strictly defined sequence. An optimal result is possible only when the work of individual muscles or muscle groups is coordinated in spatio-temporal and dynamic-temporal relationships. This interaction of the muscles involved in movements is called intermuscular coordination. It is specific to specific types of movements and cannot be transferred from one movement to another. Thus, it should be taken into account that the development of the strength qualities of the quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteal muscles, and back extensor muscles individually will not cause an adequate increase in performance in performing an exercise performed using these muscles, such as the squat. Performing only the motion of throwing on a pulley machine will not improve your javelin throwing performance, and running with weights on your feet (or in the water) will not increase your running speed under normal conditions. “You train what you train.” Moreover, the use of weights when performing sport-specific movements can worsen their technique due to changes in the biomechanical scheme of these movements. Training aimed at developing the qualities that underlie achievements in a particular sport, but not using movements specific to this sport, can be used only at the introductory and general preparatory stages, gradually reducing their share in the special preparatory stage and excluding them in the pre-competition stage.
6. The principle of reversibility
The principle of reversibility is based on the phenomenon when cessation of training sessions leads to the so-called. detraining, i.e. gradual loss of qualities and functions acquired as a result of training. What is essentially happening is the body adapting to new (lower) requirements. “What is not used is lost.” This is due to the fact that in order to maintain functions and qualities at a new level, increased as a result of training, the body requires additional efforts. For example, muscle mass increased as a result of bodybuilding is metabolically active and, even at rest, requires a fairly large amount of energy and plastic material for nutrition, synthetic processes, and utilization of metabolic products. However, the concept of “body beauty” does not exist for the body; it is important for it to ensure normal functioning with minimal energy consumption. The body retains the acquired increased level of muscle mass only as long as it needs this muscle mass to exist under conditions of periodically repeated external loads on it. A decrease in the volume and intensity of training influences will lead to the fact that muscle mass will decrease to a level corresponding to the new level of load. The same applies to any other functions and systems of the body.
7. The principle of cyclicity
The implementation of the cyclical principle in practice is the periodization of the training process. Periodization is the cornerstone of the theory and practice of any sports training and health practice. The use of periodization in planning the training process is the only way to ensure a sufficiently long-term increase in sports results, while minimizing the possibility of overfatigue or overtraining.
As we have already said, with prolonged exposure to training loads of a certain type on the body, the rate of adaptive changes in the body gradually slows down and continued use of this type of load no longer provides an increase in results. Further development of fitness is possible in this case only by changing the nature of the training stimulus, in which the development of adaptation occurs in a different direction due to the development of other functions and qualities. To do this, within the framework of the maximum task, the solution of which is allocated to the macrocycle, intermediate tasks are identified, the solution of which is associated with the development of various qualities and functions. Consecutive changes in periods of training influences on various functional systems that dominate in the development of adaptation to these loads ensure the duration and continuity of training.
The use of periodization in sports practice involves breaking down the training process into macro-, meso- and microcycles. Macrocycles are periods within which a maximum task is solved. In the practice of sports, the macrocycle serves to prepare for the next major competition (for example, annual macrocycles or four-year macrocycles associated with preparation for the Olympic Games). In the practice of fitness training in general (and, for example, amateur bodybuilding, as its component, in particular), the duration of the macrocycle, as a rule, depends on the goal set by the client and the expected period of its achievement. The macrocycle, in turn, is divided into mesocycles to solve various specific problems. The duration of mesocycles is determined by the duration of adaptation processes occurring in functional systems corresponding to the loads applied during this period, which, in turn, depends on the reactivity of these systems and the dynamics of the training means used.
The choice of goals to be addressed in training within individual mesocycles, and, as a consequence, the methods and means used for this, depend on specific sports. The coach is required to have sufficiently deep knowledge in the field of sports physiology in order to accurately determine the totality of various adaptation processes, the implementation of which will lead to an overall increase in performance in a given sport.
When planning a macrocycle, one should take into account the different duration of adaptation processes that ensure the development of certain qualities, and the different duration of maintaining sports form in each mesocycle.
The mesocycle, in turn, is divided into microcycles, periods in which training loads of varying volume and intensity are applied. This is connected with this. As we know, to trigger the adaptation mechanism, the stressful nature of the training influence applied to the body is necessary. However, the desire to ensure such a stressful nature of the load at each training session with a high degree of probability can lead to inhibition or disruption of the adaptation mechanism as a result of overtraining - a condition largely associated with overstrain of cortical processes and disruption of the regulatory functions of the central nervous system. Alternating microcycles with loads that differ in volume and intensity will make it possible to most effectively implement the task set for solution within a specific mesocycle. More detailed recommendations for creating cycles when developing training programs will be given below.
The principle of specificity involves taking into account the peculiarities of the nature and forms of various types of activities, which are determined by the conditions and requirements for a person specific to each activity. Each type of activity, having a common structure with other types of activity, implements it in a special way, characteristic of a particular activity.
Methods for studying labor psychology
Occupational psychology as a branch of psychological science uses the entire arsenal of general psychological methods. Most methods are used in three independent plans:
For psychological analysis of professional activity;
To conduct a variety of applied research (vocational selection, professional consultation, rationalization of work and rest, etc.);
To study the personality of a particular employee, his abilities, motivation, states.
There are several classifications of work psychology methods. We can propose a classification of work psychology methods, which includes two large categories of methods:
a group of non-experimental methods, which is a targeted study of professional activity in natural conditions,
and a group of experimental methods, including a targeted study of the organization of conditions and methods of performing activities.
The first group includes two main methods: the observation method and the survey method, as well as a number of additional methods and auxiliary means.
The second group includes an experiment in two of its varieties: laboratory and natural (industrial), as well as a test method.
Non-experimental methods
Traditionally, there are two types of observation: external (direct) and internal (introspection).
External, or direct, observation allows us to describe the actions, techniques and movements of the employee, their compliance with regulatory goals.
To increase the objectivity and accuracy of observation, a number of additional techniques and methods are used, which primarily relate to recording the results of professional activities. The most common among them are photographs of the working day, timekeeping, and analysis of the products of labor activity.
A photograph of a working day is a temporary recording of the sequence of actions, changes in work and rest schedules, forced pauses in work, etc.
Timing - measuring the time of labor operations. It allows you to determine their duration, frequency of repetition at certain intervals, and the intensity of the labor process.
Analysis of the products of labor activity: these can be either material, documented products of activity, or functional (procedural) products of activity.
A variant of this method is the analysis of erroneous actions, malfunctions, accidents and accidents.
Self-observation in labor psychology comes in two forms: professional self-report and participant observation (work method).
In the first case, the psychologist invites the specialist to think out loud during his activities, reciting each operation, each observation of the labor process.
In the second case, the psychologist himself becomes a student and, starting to study the profession, improves in it more and more.
This method is called the labor method in psychology. It began to be developed in domestic labor psychology in the 20s of the 20th century. Its essence lies in the combination, in the person of a psychologist, of a researcher who is able and willing to describe professional work, and a worker who knows it.
Survey methods are traditionally presented in two forms: oral survey (conversation, interview) and written survey (questionnaire).
Conversation is one of the widely used methods in work psychology and is used to cover a wide range of problems.
Questioning involves receiving written responses from respondents to pre-formulated questions, while the psychologist may not come into direct contact with employees.
Topic 1. Getting to know each other
Goals of the lesson: getting the participants to know each other, concentrating, relieving tension in an unfamiliar environment, paying attention to the partner. The first lesson begins with children getting acquainted with the room in which they will study the entire correctional course. Children can walk around and see everything that interests them. Then the children are offered...
Prevention of conflicts in professionally mature teams
Conflict prevention consists in organizing the life activities of subjects of social interaction in such a way that eliminates or minimizes the likelihood of conflicts arising between them. The style of relationships refers to some stable stereotypes of consciousness and behavior that acquire the character of a...
Organization and methods of research. Stages of experimental work
The study included all the main stages of the experiment identified by V.N. Druzhinin [Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. - 2nd ed., add. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002. P. 78-85.]. 1) Primary statement of the problem: - definition of the topic, goals and objectives; - selection of subject, object and method of research; - formulation of a psychological hypothesis. ...
· Adaptive changes in the body depend on the type of muscular work performed and are observed both in the nature and in the manifestations of the cumulative effect.
· The most pronounced effects of physical activity and adaptive changes are manifested in organs, systems and physiological mechanisms that are most loaded when performing physical activity (for which physical activity reaches a threshold or supra-threshold level) (“We train what we train”).
The specificity of training effects appears I
· Regarding motor skill(sports technique) - the greatest effect of training is manifested in relation to the motor skill (sports technique) that the training is aimed at - principle of specialization. In this case, the training is aimed at developing and consolidating the technique of a certain movement and increasing its effectiveness, which requires development intermuscular coordination, which is specific to a particular type of movement and, as a rule, does not transfer from one movement to another.
· Regarding leading physical ability– training exercises and modes contribute to the most effective development of the motor ability for the development of which they were selected and used. Examples.
o Speed loads increase the increase in anaerobic capacity due to increased creatine phosphate and glycolytic resynthesis of ATP.
o Speed-strength loads cause an increase in the content of creatine phosphate and glycogen in muscles, the development of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, muscle hypertrophy of the myofibrillar type, a shift in the spectrum of muscle fibers towards fast fibers, and an increase in resistance to lactic acid.
o Long-term aerobic loads increase the possibilities of aerobic energy supply: muscle hypertrophy of the sarcoplasmic type; an increase in the number and size of muscle mitochondria, myoglobin content, glycogen concentration and intramuscular myoglobin reserves, a shift in the spectrum of muscle fibers towards red fibers, an increase in BMD.
o Strength training increases muscle mass through the synthesis of contractile proteins.
· Regarding the composition of active muscle groups. Each type of physical activity (physical exercise) activates and trains certain muscle groups. The highest functional indicators and the greatest efficiency are manifested when performing exercises using the main muscle groups being trained. For example, among qualified athletes, the highest VO2 max is recorded when performing a specific (competitive) exercise.
· Regarding training conditions - adaptive changes in the body that arise as a result of training in certain environmental conditions ensure that the body adapts to these specific environmental conditions.
Specific and nonspecific components of adaptation to physical activity
· Nonspecific changes are observed when performing any muscular work: increasing physical performance, improving regulatory mechanisms, improving health.
· The ratio of specific and nonspecific components depends on the nature of physical activity
o Adaptation to anaerobic loads is more specific than to aerobic ones, since with the former, adaptation is primarily associated with changes in the active muscles themselves, and the latter with extramuscular factors (state of the cardiorespiratory system, oxygen capacity of the blood, etc.).
o Highly specialized physical exercises have a more specific effect than general developmental exercises, which have a general training effect. The latter type of exercise is preferable for use for health purposes or in the initial stages of sports training.
Regular systematic aerobic exercise in the training zone (at the level of 50-80% of MOC) causes adaptive changes that improve oxygen delivery to muscles and other organs and tissues, its transport to tissues and utilization. There are muscular cardiorespiratory adaptations to aerobic exercise. Such adaptation, including both structural and functional changes, leads to improved delivery of oxygen and nutrients to contracting muscles, removal of metabolic products, and improves metabolic regulation in individual muscle fibers.
Adaptation of oxygen-utilizing systems (muscular adaptation)
· Selective sarcoplasmic hypertrophy of slow-twitch type I muscle fibers with an increase in their oxidative capacity.
· Increasing the density of capillaries in muscle fibers with an increase in the number of capillaries per fiber and the possibility of increasing the speed and volume of oxygen delivery to muscles, nutrients and removal of metabolic end products.
Increased myoglobin content in muscles
Increasing the ability of mitochondria to oxidative resynthesis of ATP
· increase in the size and number of mitochondria
· increased ability to oxidize lipids and carbohydrates
· increased use of lipids as energy fuels
Increased glycogen and triglyceride levels
Increased ability to demonstrate endurance
Myoglobin content in muscles. Animal studies show that muscle myoglobin levels can increase by up to 80% under the influence of exercise. Consequently, the potential for inactive muscle fiber to transport oxygen increases. The increase in the amount of myoglobin to increase the oxidative capacity of muscles at rest is small. The main effect of increasing myoglobin content occurs during muscle work and is associated with facilitating the diffusion of oxygen into the muscles from the blood.
Intramuscular energy reserves. A number of studies note that well-trained individuals at rest have a higher glycogen content (2.5 times compared to the untrained state). An increase in glycogen reserves may be due, in particular, to an increase in the sensitivity of muscle cells to insulin, which occurs under the influence of training. This promotes a faster supply of glucose to muscle fibers. In endurance athletes, the transfer of glucose into muscle cells occurs approximately 60% more than in people leading a sedentary lifestyle. Only trained individuals were found to have significant reserves of glucose and glycogen in skeletal muscles.
Insulin also promotes a dose-dependent increase in blood flow to insulin-sensitive tissue. Because trained muscles have improved capillarization, this effect of insulin can increase oxygen delivery to them. Trained muscles have an increased ability to store glucose in the form of glycogen. The concentration of muscle glycogen will depend on the time elapsed after the training load and the amount of subsequent dietary carbohydrate intake. Higher muscle glycogen content in trained individuals may reflect the phenomenon of glycogen supercompensation.
Mitochondrial density in muscles and oxidative enzyme activity. IN
In trained muscles, mitochondria are characterized by a significantly higher ability to oxidatively reduce ATP. The oxidative capacity of skeletal muscles is increased due to a noticeable increase in the surface area of the mitochondrial membrane, as well as the number of mitochondria per unit area of muscle tissue. On average, the size of skeletal muscle mitochondria in endurance athletes is 14-40% larger compared to untrained individuals leading a sedentary lifestyle. This specific feature appears only in the fibers involved in the execution of the training exercise.
Theory and methodology of fitness training
There is a paradox - to ensure longevity and continuity of progress, we must, observing the principle of overload, constantly strive to increase the load, but in training practice it is impossible to realize this condition. The principle of cyclicity will come to our aid, which we will begin to consider a little later.
The principle of specificity postulates that “the most pronounced adaptive changes under the influence of training occur in the organs and functional systems that are most stressed when performing physical activity” (4). As they say, “training is what you train.” For example, short-term training with near-maximal and extreme loads will cause those adaptive changes that correspond precisely to this nature of the load, and will differ from those that occur under the influence of long-term continuous training with moderate loads. The first of them will cause an increase in the cross-section of the muscle due to the development of mainly “fast” muscle fibers, improvement of creatine phosphokinase, myokinase systems of energy production and anaerobic glycolysis. The second will lead to the development of “slow” muscle fibers, less capable of hypertrophy, as well as improvement of aerobic energy supply mechanisms and increased capillarization.
Thus, when starting classes with a client, it is necessary to fairly accurately determine the nature of the load, the use of which should solve certain tasks set by him. This poses a problem if the client wants to maximize the development of several different qualities. The interaction of training effects from loads that differ in nature can be negative. For example, incorrectly combining loads aimed at developing strength and endurance in the training process can lead to a significant decrease in the training effect of each of them. Acceleration of mitochondrial synthesis and an increase in the level of enzymes that provide the aerobic mechanism of energy supply during endurance work is ensured by the release of the so-called. stress hormones, the main of which are glucocorticoids. However, glucocorticoids, including mobilizing the body’s protein resources, “compete” with anabolic hormones, designed to accelerate the synthesis of contractile proteins to increase strength qualities. In turn, short-term powerful workouts aimed at developing strength and using anaerobic mechanisms of ATP resynthesis “acidify” the internal environment of the body, which prevents the growth of mitochondria (“energy stations” that provide the aerobic path of energy production). In principle, it is possible to simultaneously develop various qualities, using training influences that differ from each other, but combine them in accordance with certain rules and choosing priority goals and objectives. Therefore, you, as a coach, need to familiarize your ward with this phenomenon in an accessible form and jointly decide on priorities.
Regardless of the goal of a training program, there are fundamental principles of training: specificity, continuity, progressive overload, and unity of load and recovery. Ignoring any of these principles leads to a decrease in the effectiveness of the training process and can provoke injury.
The principle of specificity
It was first formulated by Dr. Thomas De Lorme (1945). The most pronounced adaptive changes under the influence of training occur in organs and functional systems that are most involved when performing physical activity (N. I. Volkov et al., 2000).
The acronym SAID (Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands) is sometimes used to indicate that the adaptive changes occurring in the body correspond to external demands, in this case the characteristics of physical activity (TR Baechle and RW Earle, 2008).
Often the principle of specificity is considered in a narrow sense, in relation to the characteristics of the training load within a single session. However, the principle of specificity manifests itself at all levels of the training process, from the preparation of a training program to long-term training. Already at the first stage of training, the exercises of the training program, their characteristics and frequency of execution are selected depending on the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the student, the purpose of the training and his state of health.
Continuity principle
The training process should not be interrupted for a long time, otherwise the positive changes in the body’s condition achieved during the training will be lost.
There is a relationship between the timing of adaptation development and the time of decline in performance after cessation of training (deadaptation). It usually takes 4-8 weeks of training to achieve significant improvements in most bioenergetic parameters. The decrease in these indicators after cessation of training to the initial level occurs at approximately the same time. Repeated repetition of the cycle “adaptation – deadaptation – readaptation” depletes the body’s reserve capabilities. The most effective way of adaptation is training with constantly applied loads of adequate magnitude on the leading function, which helps maintain it at a consistently high level (N. I. Volkov et al., 2000).
The principle of progressive overload
Also formulated by Thomas DeLorme (DeLorme and Watkins, 1948) Training programs should provide a gradual increase in load by changing its characteristics (intensity and/or volume).
First, you should increase the volume of the load, and then its intensity. If it is necessary to temporarily reduce the load, then first reduce its intensity, and then its volume. In addition, to ensure a pronounced increase in the trained function under the influence of a certain type of physical activity, its value must exceed a threshold value, which, according to research, lies above the threshold of anaerobic metabolism (N. I. Volkov et al., 2000). When training with weights, it is recommended to increase the intensity and volume of the load by 2-10%, higher values for large (by mass) muscle groups and lower values for small ones (ACSM, category B recommendations, 2009). Trainees can benefit from larger changes (Fleck and Kraemer, 2007).
In relation to health training, this principle means that with a properly organized training process, changes in volume and intensity should lead to a gradual increase in loads, and for a beginner this increase occurs for some time in almost every training session. Subsequently, with reaching the optimal level, the volume indicators stabilize, and the increase in intensity tends to decrease. It is believed that the intensity of training increases until it reaches a genetically predetermined limit, then stabilization occurs, and then a gradual decrease, due, in particular, to the aging processes of the body. At the same time, for older people, the preservation or slight decrease in muscle mass and strength achieved at a younger age can be considered an excellent result. Those who begin weight training can make noticeable progress at any age, but the gains will be especially pronounced in younger people.
It is now generally accepted that progressive growth in results is possible only by varying the load in different structural units of the training process (Platonov, 2004; Fleck and Kraemer, 2007). Thus, the load planning scheme provides for the alternation of intense work with periods of work of relatively low intensity, thanks to which conditions are created for recovery and the active course of adaptation processes.
The principle of unity of load and recovery
Achieving high results is possible only with a combination of training and non-training factors (nutrition, daily routine, sleep). The systematic approach involves the integrated use of means of different actions in close connection with a specific training regime and methodology from the standpoint of the unity of load and recovery (Karpman, 1980).
